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These data represent naturalistic evidence of this relationship. teen bodybuilding photo gallery Anabolic steroid info. Evidence from such reports, while rich in individual detail, contributes little to an understanding of the relationship between AAS use and aggression in the larger population. They are biased in that any number of characteristics might differentiate such individuals from the general population besides their use of AAS, again highlighting the difficulty in attempting to speculate about "normal" processes, pharmacological or psychological, in "abnormal" cases. Nonetheless, such cases constitute the majority of the evidence to which the populace is exposed. teen bodybuilding photo gallery Bodybuilding female. More rigorous studies involve the observation of the concurrent correlation between variables within large groups (empirical research) or comparisons between existing groups on concurrent measures (cross-sectional research). Changes in relationships may be evaluated over time, either within or between existing groups (longitudinal or prospective studies). Lastly, treatments (i. teen bodybuilding photo gallery Human muscles. e. , the administration of AAS/placebo) may be applied to either pre-existing groups (quasi-experimental designs) or to groups of randomly assigned subjects (true experimental designs) who are then evaluated over time. Empirical and Case Studies. A substantial amount of empirical research supports the AAS/aggression relationship. For instance, AAS users report higher levels of anger-arousal and hostile outlook than a group that never used AAS (Lefavi, Reeve, & Newland, 1990). Interestingly, data collected from former AAS users was not reported, so it is uncertain if they differed reliably from either group. AAS users exhibit increased instances of mood disorder (Pope & Katz, 1994), higher scores on aggression scales on personality measures (Galligani, Renck, & Hansen, 1996; Yates, Perry, & Murray, 1992) and measures of mood (Bond, Choi, & Pope, 1995). Nonetheless, as with the T/aggression relationship, findings of reliable differences in psychometrically assessed psychological characteristics between AAS users and non-users are not universal (e. g. , Malone, Dimeff, Lombardo, & Sample, 1995; Swanson, 1989). Several case studies (e. g. , Pope & Katz, 1990) and retrospective evaluations of forensic records (e. g. , Thilbin, Kristiansson, & Rajs, 1997) have also reported associations between AAS and aggression or other psychopathology. However, as noted previously, generalizing from case study data or criminal index cases to the larger population is, at best, a tenuous proposition. The majority of the empirical and case studies suffer from methodological flaws, such as inconsistent operationalizations of aggression and differing psychometric measures (Bahrke, Yesalis, & Wright, 1996), making comparisons across studies difficult. Most rely exclusively on self-report measures of aggression, a method susceptible to several sources of bias. And, as mentioned earlier, inferring causation using such data is problematic in that AAS use is not randomly distributed in the population. The choice to use AAS, potentially at high doses, is likely to be confounded with a number of predisposing individual differences. For example, current or past AAS users might value aggression and consider aggressive responding a desirable outcome. Ultimately, the data are largely inconsistent and inconclusive (Uzych, 1992) and a causal relationship between AAS use and aggression has not been established (Isacsson & Bergman, 1993). Prospective and Longitudinal StudiesChoi, Parrott, & Cowan (1990) followed current AAS users and a non-using control group over a period of several months in a prospective and to some extent quasi-experimental design. The AAS group was evaluated both when using and not using AAS (an ABBA design) and non-users where evaluated at the same times, but never used AAS. A significant group (user/non-user) by drug phase (on/off) interaction for aggression, assessed by the Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory (BDHI) resulted. Subsequent tests found no reliable effect for drug phase or user status. On the other hand, although there was no significant interaction for hostility (BDHI), there was a reliable effect for group: AAS users were more hostile than non-users, regardless of drug phase.
Teen bodybuilding photo gallery
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