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ICT
IMPLEMENTATION ISSUES AT LOCAL GOVERNMENT:
RUGAYAH HJ. HASHIM
ADNAN JAMALUDIN,PhD
ROSMIMAH MOHD.
ROSLIN, PhD
INTRODUCTION “45% of government projects planned in the Eighth Malaysia Plan (RMK8) were not successfully implemented and the funds for these projects have to be carried forward to the Ninth Malaysia Plan (RMK9)” -- Abdullah Ahmad Badawi(2006), Prime Minister of Malaysia. As with most developing countries, Malaysia is witnessing a shift from an industrial-based economy to an information-based economy in which information is intrinsic to organizational functioning (Mahathir Mohamad, 1998 & 2002). Driven by the need to acquire, manipulate and distribute information, the last decade have seen a massive growth in Information and Communication Technology (ICT) investments by both public and private institutions. Often described as a characteristic of the information revolution, this increasing rate of investment in technology has also been fueled by both the decreasing costs and increasing capabilities of technological hardware and software (Seneviratne, 1999). Given all of these events, there is little doubt that the Malaysian society has become increasingly dependent on ICT. Hence, through this continuously evolving technologies society is being transformed by the changing ways we do things at the most fundamental level (Beaumaster, 1999). This transformation is precipitated by a number of trends: a shift from manufacturing to service economy; the usage of information as a resource, factor of production, and commodity; and the propulsion of economic growth through technological innovation and scientific discovery (Laudon & Laudon, 2002; Martin et al, 2002; Lucas, 2000; Muhammad Rais, 1999 & 2003). On an individual level, every aspect of our daily lives is subject to technological innovations. Computers, fax machines, networks, web television, fiber optics, and electronic banking have all played a pivotal role in the way we communicate, work, play, and do business (Laudon & Laudon, 2002; Martin et al, 2002; Haag, Cummings & McCubbrey, 2002). As the Information Age progresses, we increasingly owe more of our economic and technological growth to the free flow of ideas and knowledge. Consequently, it becomes more important that we have access to superior and timely information. Thus, as a nation, Malaysia’s toehold in the Information Age relies heavily on technological progress and, scientific and technical information (Ninth Malaysia Plan, 2006; Abdullah Ahmad Badawi, 2004; Abdullah Sanusi Ahmad et al, 2003: 252; Mahathir Mohamad, 1998 & 2002; Ahmad Sarji, 1996). SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH Local governments need to understand how multiple users of ICT can advance the intra-coordination of government functions, for example, land-use planning, public works, licenses and zoning and, emergency response to natural disasters. While ICTs are not the instant cure that many view them to be, they are certainly an asset that can provide a number of advantageous and effective solutions if properly planned before implementing them (Beaumaster, 2002; Kuruppuarachchi, 2002; Ward & Peppard, 2002; GAO, 1988). The successful implementation of ICTs in any organization depends on a multitude of important and interrelated factors. For close to 10 years the public sector in Malaysia has spent a great deal of time and effort researching the question of how best to plan for and implement ICTs in organizations (Abdullah Sanusi Ahmad et al, 2003; Muhammad Rais & Nazariah Khalid, 2003). But even with the reams of background research and countless results from institutional studies, they still face a mixture of problems for which there are no easy solutions. The outcome of this research is significant as a policy guide, benchmark and key performance indicators when local government administrators want to measure the effectiveness of their service delivery towards the citizens in their constituents. BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW As noted earlier, forty-five percent (45%) of government projects planned in the Eighth Malaysia Plan (RMK8) were not successfully implemented and the funds for these projects have to be carried forward to the Ninth Malaysia Plan (RMK9) (Abdullah Ahmad Badawi, 2006). Consequently, with the fifth and final thrust of the Ninth Malaysia Plan which is to strengthen the institutional and implementation capacity of the country, the success of Malaysia’s plans according to the Honorable Prime Minister, rests on the Government’s ability to implement (Ninth Malaysia Plan, 2006). Bearing that in mind, it is imperative that implementation issues be analyzed before a project is executed so as to reduce the economic costs and opportunity costs involved in failed projects. The Malaysian Government’s efforts to implement the National Mission or Vision 2020 as the framework for the planning and implementation of the country’s developmental policies in the Ninth Malaysia Plan encompasses the strategies, programs and allocation designed to realize the National Mission, thereby advancing Malaysia towards becoming a more developed, just and united nation (9th Malaysia Plan, 2006). Economic growth is the key and foundation for Vision 2020 to be successful and so far, all sectors of the Malaysian economy have showed strong growth including the information and communications technology (ICT) sector. As such, using ICT, the Government aims to improve the public services delivery system at various levels -- Federal, State and local governments.
According to Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohammed, Malaysia’s former Prime Minister, a good delivery system is the key to turning the country into a developed nation as envisioned in Vision 2020 plan (The Sunday Times, 2006). Again, focusing on that statement, ensuring the successful implementation of ICT in governments requires strong leadership (Owen & Demb, 2004). ICT implementation leads directly to benefits and improvement in government service delivery (Koskela & Kazi, 2003; Soloman, 2005) for, the planners have done their part, and the baton has changed hands to the civil servants and others tasked with the job of implementing it (Kathirasen, 2006), particularly at the local government level. If the efforts at effectively leveraging ICT are not streamlined at the local governments, the e-government flagship would be rhetoric rather than reality. Addressing the dilemma of ICT implementation and management is a full-time job. The possible approaches and solutions change as rapidly as the technologies themselves (Beaumaster, 1999; Fallon, 1995; Galliers & Baker, 1994). Over the past decade, important efforts have been launched in an attempt to get a better handle on the problems surrounding information and communication technologies (ICTs), their uses and their impacts on organizations in the public sector in Malaysia (Muhammad Rais and Nazariah Khalid, 2003). Unfortunately, very little of this research specifically addresses the process of ICT implementation in the Malaysian local government context (Nurlinda Rozak, et al, 2005; Johnson, Changgie & Rugayah Hashim, 2005 & Rugayah Hashim, 2006). Much of what are currently available in this regard comes from the researches and experiences of the private sector as well as those conducted by developed countries such as the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Japan, Korea and other European nations (Huang, 2005; Pan, 2004; Yong, 2003, Muhammad Rais and Nazariah Khalid, 2003). However, on an international basis, a number of general ICT research studies have focused exclusively on the public sector starting in the mid 1990s but since then similarly focused concerns have progressed slowly, with real headway being made only intermittently (Yong, 2003; Muhammad Rais and Nazariah Khalid, 2003; Pan, 2005). With its obvious impact on our society and organizations, why is ICT such an underrepresented topic in public administration research? The reality is that ICT implementation in the public sector, especially at the local government level, is a slippery slope indeed (Beaumaster, 1999 and 2002). As with all organizations globally, the Malaysian local governments are involved in the rapidly changing technologies. However, typically, the local government administrators and employees have not had the same education and depth of expertise with regard to ICT as those in the private sector or federal government departments such as the Malaysian Administrative and Modernization Planning Unit (MAMPU). In addition, the district offices, local councils or municipalities often lack the resources for training and development necessary to deal with current and future technologies (Muhammad Rais, 2003; Muhammad Rais and Nazariah Khalid, 2003). Slowly, but surely, things are changing. Within the last ten years, the Malaysian public at large has become more technologically savvy (Minges & Gray, 2002). This has raised awareness of available technologies and what their use may entail for citizens and government organizations alike. With this new awareness comes increased pressure from the public, press and other Non Government Organizations (NGOs) for these local government bodies to make use of a wider variety of information technologies in enhancing their operations and the often erroneous assumption that they will provide more efficient and effective means of operation and services (Ahmad Sarji, 1996). Unfortunately, many municipalities are unable to react proactively as technologies constantly change and evolve around them. The public sector suffers from what is known as “ICT lag time” (Muhammad Rais, 1999 & 2003; Creed, 2001). Nevertheless, there is hope on the horizon. In the last decade, ICT have become more powerful, less expensive, and more accessible and user-friendly (Braithwaite, 1996). These advances can only help ICT beleaguered local governments to make more timely progress in their technology acquisitions and implementation. Using “ICT lag time” to compare Malaysia and other developed nations such as the United States, the former is still delayed by approximately ten years – an eternity in technological terms (Minges & Gray, 2002; Abdullah Sanusi Ahmad et al, 2003:253). Therefore, one of the key challenges of ICT executives at local governments would be to help their organizations exploit the technology opportunities and be aware of the long-term economic considerations in devising strategies for ICT implementation (Galliers & Baker, 1994). With that in mind, it can be said that some Selangor local governments obviously have its share of problems with regard to ICT implementation (Ch’ng, 2005). However, it would be incorrect to think that just one or two factors are responsible for these problems. In actuality, there are issues or impediments, which come into play when these local governments (municipalities or local councils or local authorities) attempt to implement information and communication technologies (ICTs). As mentioned previously, most of the smaller Selangor local governments have limited funds, human resources, ICT knowledge, and expertise from which to draw, which is in contrast to larger local governments in Selangor and other states such as Penang, Johor and Sarawak which may be in a better position, with regard to resources, to meet the needs of an ICT development and deployment process (Ch’ng, 2005). There is a lot to be learned from the careful analysis of large public organizations as well as those in the private sector. However, it is imperative that an increased effort be made to address the specialized needs and issues facing the local government of the state of Selangor with regard to ICT and their deployment so that Selangor is able to maintain her developed state status. This study takes a portion of this task with an in-depth view of the specific issues inherent in ICT implementation in the Selangor local governments and their subsequent interrelationships. METHODOLOGY Considering the huge impact of ICT in public sector as well as the socio-economic landscape of local governments, an inquiry on the issues that affect the implementation of ICT should extend beyond the boundaries of tangible achievement efforts to the more intricate surrounding context. This is to allow the underlying problematic areas between the phenomenon and the social environment to be established. For this reason, this study adopts an in-depth case study research approach for data collection and analysis (Myers and Avison, 2002; Yin, 2004; Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Furthermore, Yin (2004) advocated that a case study approach is: “An empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real life context, when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident, and in which multiple sources of evidence are used”. This methodology is most appropriate in scenarios where the research question is exploratory in nature and focuses on the examination of current events that occur beyond the control of the researcher (Yin, 2004). In addition, the case research methodology would reveal unforeseen relationships and the generation of deeper insights into the interdependence among the patterns themes of the issues uncovered over the course of the investigation (Benbasat, Goldstein & Mead, 1987; Walsham, 1995). Most methodologists and researchers have been proponents of both positivist and interpretivist approaches to the design and execution of case studies with no mention of innate superiority in either techniques (Walsham, 1995; Paré and Elam, 1997; Yin, 2004). In fact, the feasibility of any theoretical angle is a function of the underlying research objectives which is in contrast to the structured approach of positivism that is governed strictly by the philosophy of constructing mathematically quantifiable relations between prior theoretically derived propositions and empirical realities (Neuman, 2003). Indeed, according to Walsham (1995) and Neuman (2003) the interpretivist perspective believes that reality is only partially observable and comprises relations beyond noticeable facts. In other words, the interpretivist views the collection of objective data as impossible since the investigator interacts with the human subjects involved in the inquiry and in the process alters the perceptions of both parties. Effectively, interpretive studies supply evidence of a non-deterministic perspective, which demonstrates the “intent to increase understanding of the phenomena within a specific cultural and contextual setting, and an examination of the phenomena and the setting from the perspectives of participants: (Orlikowski & Baroudi, 1991; Walsham, 1995). Inspired by Markus’s (1983) defense of individuals as intelligent beings existing in a shared social context, this study suggests that local government administrators are not just passive recipients of federal and state government directives as they participate actively in shaping government-to-government relations. Consequently, given the research objectives, a holistic comprehension of the local government environment through the analysis of interviews is necessary. Also, taking into account the unique scope of this population study where only the local governments of Selangor is the target audience, the adoption of the interpretive perspective of the data collected can be perceived as a logical decision. In another sense, the experience and contextual understanding of the researcher serves to provide complementary background information that is invaluable to the interpretation of the evidence gathered. The data collected through interview sessions with the ICT officers of the twelve local governments of Selangor took three years to complete and was divided into two stages: · Stage 1 – Face-to-face interviews were conducted using structured questions replicated from Beaumaster’s (1999) research. For this preliminary stage, the local governments were chosen on the basis of easy access and their geographical closeness to Shah Alam and Klang. The seven local governments were: Petaling Land/District Office, Petaling Jaya Municipal Council (MPPJ), Subang Jaya Municipal Council (MPSJ), Shah Alam City Council (MBSA), Ampang Jaya Municipal Council (MPAJ), Klang Municipal Council (MPK) and the Kuala Selangor Land/District Office. These seven local governments comprised 33.3% of the overall population of twenty-one local governments. The ICT Officer from each local government was interviewed, therefore, the unit of analysis is the local government. The interview session lasted twenty minutes and the taped responses were later transcribed. · Stage 2 – Based on literature reviewed and the analysis of the data from Stage 1, the narrative evidences were insufficient, that is, ‘rich data’ were needed to comply with the requirements of “reliability and validity” in qualitative research. Therefore, a semi-structured interview guide was developed to match the requirements of the preset themes derived from literature and the first stage analysis. At this juncture, twelve local governments consisting of a city council, municipalities and district councils were identified. The nine land/district offices were eliminated as they were considered as ‘not autonomous’, that is, any decision-making for ICT planning, procurement and implementation is made for them by the Selangor State ICT Center. Again, taped responses from the twenty-minute sessions were transcribed for easy coding and analysis, where the actual conceptual framework emerged with four crucial themes. In between the collection of data, thematic analysis was employed for the coding and interpretation of the raw information. Patterns from the transcribed interviews were first identified and then matched with the preset themes (Taylor-Power and Renner, 2003; Wolcott, 2001). The entire research process concluded only when information appeared to have reached saturation. As with qualitative research, qualitative data consist of words and observations, not numbers (Taylor-Powell and Renner, 2003; Wolcott, 2001, Miles and Huberman, 1994). Inductively, the narrative data analyzed came up with various patterns, and from these patterns, four consistent categories or themes emerged to form the research framework. Consequently, these themes formed the foundation for the emergent conceptual framework for this study as shown in Figure 1.0. The research questions were drawn, albeit inductively, from the interviews and literature, where similarities occur with the propositions. The propositions are the issue-themes or the discoveries that emerged which are: political (P), economic (E), social (S) and technological (T). The Emergent Conceptual Framework Based on Figure 1.0, the processes involved with ICT implementation include ICT planning and ICT procurement. In order to successfully execute the strategic goals and objectives as envisioned in the local government’s annual ICT master plan, the next logical step would be to tender out the contracts for large purchases of ICT hardware and software. The equipments are bought bearing in mind that certain customized systems are previously outlined in the master plan inclusive of online service delivery, a.k.a, e-government initiative. Thus, the infrastructure, network and hardware allocations are all embedded in the strategic plans of the first process. Henceforth, both processes are combined and ready for the third process, which is putting them into perspectives in the form of ICT implementation. In any ICT projects, particularly in government ICT projects, risks and failures are bound to occur. In fact, to quote Heeks (2006:3): “Most e-government initiatives fail due to poor implementation and management.” Issues, problems, barriers, impediments, hindrances, obstacles and even failures can be reined if we know beforehand what to expect. This can be learned from governments that have experienced these failures by applying and benchmarking those issues but in the context of local governments. Therefore, the emergent patterns and themes from the analysis of the interviews are elaborated as follows: Political Issues Inter- departmental coordination or inter-organizational knowledge sharing was found to be critical to the implementation of ICT and the system. It was found to involve the flows of knowledge at the individual, group, and organizational levels. While inter-organizational knowledge sharing could be observed from the knowledge that flows from one level to another, such sharing was considered to be effective when learning occurs at each level, starting from the individual, to group, to organizational levels. This finding is congruent with the rationale of organizational learning theory. The factors, which are information technology, organizational culture, inter-organizational routine, and knowledge domains, were found to have impact on inter-organizational knowledge sharing. Economic Issues Another issue under which is of obvious import in this particular area was the lack of a formal, strategic plan for ICT by the individual municipality itself. The contents of the current strategic plan by the local government are dependent on the directive of the Selangor ICT Center whereas each municipality should individually address their own, specific needs. Lack of a plan or use of a plan meant for the municipality provides little or not concrete directions for the acquisition and later implementation of ICT within that municipality. Considering the nature of ICT and the problems which users and officers face regarding them, it stands to reason that the lack of a formal plan merely aggravates an already difficult bureaucratic situation especially if it involves fiscal budgeting issues. Furthermore, with the complexity and volatile nature of ICT planning, it is no surprise that the lack of a customized ICT plan and model for that particular municipality is perceived as most problematic by the respondents. While it is certainly true that no model for local government ICT implementation is available, a general one would provide a framework for the municipalities from which to start without having to reinvent the wheel (Kraemer, 1987). If nothing else, such a model would provide a viable place from which to ask the right questions about needs, processes and possible problems leading to ICT implementation in the municipality. Fiscal/budgeting issues are particularly problematic to the planning process from a number of standpoints. To begin, ICT generate a variety of expenses. At the outset their purchase can prove to be quite expensive, often out of the range of small municipalities. This necessitates acquiring technology over an extended timeline, which in turn creates a whole host of compatibility, upgradability and standardization issues. In addition, expenses accumulate due to the very nature of the ICTs and their learning curve. Two key budgeting issues along these lines are training and maintenance. Furthermore, procuring ICT hardware and software is made difficult if there is not enough budget for them. Rapidly changing technology is also a matter to be contended with for the local government ICT administrators. The crux with regard to this part of the process is the inevitable time lag (economic issue) between planning for ICTs and actual implementation. In any tender situation for local governments in Malaysia, the time it takes to plan and actually receive the goods could take as long as twelve months or more and by that time the hardware or software may be obsolete even though a typical ICT strategic plan may run the course of a 3-5 year timeline. As discussed previously, this is an eternity in technological terms – new, major developments in ICT may occur in six months. By the time planned-for technologies are actually introduced in the municipality, they may be well into their obsolescence. This creates problems not just for physical hardware and software implementation but also for the staff and expertise processes – this issue has a significant impact on training, individual expertise levels, and individual resistance levels. In addition, costs of the technologies themselves change rapidly, thereby making fiscal planning a difficult proposition. While the constantly decreasing prices of ICTs is a boon for individuals or the private sector consumers, a number of public sector organizations continue to find themselves locked into buying contracts with specific vendors. Ultimately those local government who find themselves in a mandated contracting situation end up paying higher, outdated prices for obsolete systems. Social Issues Technological issues concern existing systems, standardization, compatibility, individual expertise, organizational expertise, training, written guidelines and changing technologies. Organizational and individual ICT expertise are perceived to be problematic for ICT implementation. Each individual within an organization has his or her own levels of expertise and comfort zones with regard to information and communication technologies. Part of the planning and implementation processes must necessarily review these individual needs. The needs analysis is not just important for the organization as a whole but for each staff as well if they are to remain competent. Nothing can destroy the implementation process faster than disgruntled users (Danzinger and Kraemer, 1986; Keen, 1980). After all, most information and communication technologies do not function independently of human interaction. Training can serve to increase individual expertise levels if it is approached properly. Just as important to this equation is internal leadership, that is, top management must achieve levels of ICT understanding and expertise, which will allow them to steer their organization towards a more complete and effective use of technology in order to meet the initiatives of Malaysia’s e-government. Without a solid foundation and understanding of ICT, it is impossible for administrators to deal with the problems and subsequent resistance inherent in any technological changes. Training was mentioned by all seven respondents (100%) as being sadly lacking for ICT implementation. Part of the problem with training is that to be effective, it must be a continuous and ongoing process. However, in the case of the Information Systems Officers at all seven municipalities, especially the small local government, the only training they have received are the ones organized by the Selangor ICT Center. Even though there are certain training sessions or overseas conferences, they are not allowed by their superiors to attend them. Naturally, every individual within their respective municipality has a different level of ICT expertise, thus making the training process difficult to organize. The actual training process may be complex, but the Information Systems Officers still have to attend them or get their subordinate to attend the in-house training. LIMITATIONS AND DISCUSSIONS All research is based on some underlying assumptions about what constitutes ‘valid’ research and which research methods are appropriate. Therefore, it is not uncommon for studies of this nature to have limitations, that is, in qualitative research there is considerable disagreement as to whether these research paradigms or underlying epistemologies are necessarily opposed and there is further debate about whether they can be accommodated within the one study (Myers and Avison, 2002). Nevertheless, this study employs qualitative analysis and interpretive modes based on a case study research method, such that the case study is independent of the underlying philosophical position adopted by the researcher. As for this research, there is an infinite amount of literature on implementation but specific literature on ICT implementation in local government of a developing country is relatively sparse and far between. In large measure, these implementation problems exist because too many local governments conceive of, organize, and implement ICT projects first and foremost as technology efforts. Admittedly, the technology decisions and issues in major ICT initiatives require careful attention. The "showstopper" problems, however, are almost always the problems that flow from the politics of organizational change, in other words, the ‘political will’ of the leaders in local government is of utmost importance as well as being realistic with the challenges of implementing ambitious ICT projects in their respective municipality. Hence, ICT implementation can be greatly improved when change-related issues get the kind of attention they deserve.
_____________________ **The researchers would like to thank the following individuals and organizations for their contributions to the study: University Technology MARA (UiTM), Dato’ Ch’ng Toh Eng, the Selangor State Government ExCo for Multimedia, Environment and Kpg. Baru Development, the ICT director, managers and officers of the Selangor local governments, Selangor ICT Center, the Manager of Telekom Malaysia - Shah Alam, Dato’ Dr. Raja Malik Mohamad-President MNCC, MAMPU, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Suzanne Beaumaster- University of La Verne, USA, and others who are indirectly involved with the research.
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