Motivation and Learning

To maintain the student’s interest that brought students to the course in the first place.

• Interest in the subject matter.
• Perception of its usefulness.
• General desire to achieve.
• Self-confidence and self-esteem
• Patience and persistence
• Needs, wants, desires, challenges

Intrinsic Motivation and Extrinsic Motivation

Four Functions of Motivation:

1. Arousal Function (get them up, awoken, concentrative, brainstorming, discovery learning)
2. Expectation (expectation should be high but according to student’s learning status and capability)
3. Incentive (encouragement)
4. Punishment and Reward

Interests (Primary or natural, secondary, temporary)

To maintain Interest;

1. Pleasant motivation
2. Silent and relaxed environment
3. Good provision of material
4. Effective personality of teacher
5. Mental and physical adjustment

To encourage students to become self-motivated independent learners,

• Give frequent, positive, supportive feed back
• Ensure opportunities for their success
• Help them in finding and exploring
• Create open and positive atmosphere
• Help them feel that they are valued member of learning community
• Capitalize on their existing needs
• Make them active participant
• Variety, relevance, organization of the course
• High but realistic expectation
• Set achievable goals
• Help them in way to success
• Strengthen their self-motivation
• Avoid intense competition
• Be enthusiastic about your subject
• Let them choose for themselves
• Vary your teaching methods
• Introduce only the good works

Mental Health

1. Recognition
2. Concentration
3. Object permanence
4. Creativity
5. Language development
6. Word storage capacity
7. Cognition
8. Memory
9. Suspense
10. Arguing
11. Aesthetic and comic sense

Factors:

Heredity and Environment

Mental Health in school:

1. Positive constructive environment
2. Group system
3. Teaching methods and mental development
4. Learning pace and mental development
5. Effective test system
6. Effective curriculum
7. Dull-minded children
8. Use of A.V aids
9. Use of right language

Individual Differences

Physiological factors

1. Heredity
2. Physique and figures
3. Motility (abilities to move)

Social factors

1. Natural Environment
2. Social Environment
3. Culture
4. Socialization (social training)

Individual factors

1. Intelligence and ability
2. Temperament
3. Beliefs and attitudes
4. Sentiments and values
5. Individual experiences
6. Key situations

Characteristics and factors of effective teaching

1. Flexibility
2. Enthusiasm
3. Classroom management
4. Knowledge of the subject, organization, clear presentation
5. Reinforcement facilitates learning
6. Efficient use of academic learning time
7. Providing cues and time to answer
8. Feed back
9. Co-operative learning
10. Classroom climate
11. Higher order questions encourage analytical thinking. A higher-order question is one for which no predetermined, correct answer is available. Asking student the name of first president of Pakistan is a lower-order question but asking them to explain the importance of a president is a higher-order question.
12. Teacher-peer interaction, involve students in their own learning
13. An advance organizer is information presented to the student before the lesson.
14. Link prior knowledge with new information
15. Offer opportunities for acquiring and practicing various learning experience.

Characteristics of effective teachers

1. Effective classroom managers. They can control the class, handle behavior problems, and utilize class time.
2. Motivators
3. Good Presenters
4. Good lesson planner
5. Good helper
6. Teach beyond the basic skills, and go towards problem solving skills.
7. Evaluate the progress and provide feedback.
8. Aware of student’s special needs.
9. Have updated knowledge about teaching learning process.
10. Have committed and strong personality.
11. Good physical presentation and communication skills.
12. Interest in subject matter.
13. Positive role modeling and monitoring
14. Constructive and regular student evaluation.
15. Optimistic and fair broad minded.
16. Flexible behavior.
17. Encourages co-operation and respect for individual differences and accommodate them.
18. Using the alternative technologies.

Cognitive Development

Schema:

An organized pattern of thoughts or behaviors that is developed as a result of interacting with objects or people in the environment.

When a new experience does not fit with an existing schema, adaptation is necessary. The processes of assimilation and accommodation accomplish adaptation

Assimilation:

Assimilation occurs when the perception of a new experience is adapted to fit with the existing schema. The perception is information that is filtered or modified to fit with the existing schema. When babies handle new objects the same way they handle the previous objects, by grasping, biting, and banging them.

Accommodation:

When the existing schema is altered to handle a new experience. A bicycle rider drives a motorbike.

Equilibration is the process of restoring balance what was expected and what was actually done. Equilibration occurs as a child assimilates new experiences and accommodate existing schema.

Stages:

Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2

• Reflex behaviors, grasping, sucking
• Internationality, drops a spoon on the floor again and again
• Object permanence, out of sight things exist
• Trial and error learning, beginning of problem solving behavior

Preoperational Stage: 2 to 6,7

• Use symbols, Share their experiences, Begin to reason, Language development at pace
• Egocentricity: Storybook character seem real, are centered to their own perceptions, expect adults to see the world as they view it.
• Irreversibility: Cannot rethink, cannot change mental directions.
• Inability to conserve: Conservation is the ability to realize that certain properties of an object remain the same even though the appearance changed.

Concrete Operational Stage: 6,7 to 11, 12

• Reversibility and conservation
• Classifying according to one characteristics
• Logical inference

Formal Operational Stage: 11,12 to adulthood

Abstract and hypothetical thinking.

Affective Domain

Receiving
Being aware of or attending to something in the environment

I'll listen to a lecture or presentation about a structural model related to human behavior, but I won't promise that I'll like it.

Responding:
Showing some new behaviors as a result of experience

Answering questions about the model or rewriting lecture notes the next day.

Valuing

Showing some definite involvement or commitment
At this point a person might choose to explain the model to a friend in another class or might begin to think how education may be modified to take advantage of some of the concepts presented in the model.

Organization

Integrating a new value into one's general set of values, giving it some ranking
among one's general priorities
This is the level at which a person would begin to make long-range commitments to arranging his or her instruction and assessment relative to the model.

Characterization by Value

Acting consistently with the new value . 
At this highest level, a person would be firmly committed to utilizing the model to develop, select, or arrange instruction and would become known for that action.

CURRICULUM

Syllabus:

Detailed sketch of a subject, a list of topics, sometimes include learning objectives.

Course of study:

A collection of subjects or group of subjects at any level, like arts group, science group, primary etc.

Program of study:

Total of all the activities during the educational period under the supervision of institute, educational resources, exams, learning experiences.

The world Curriculum means Runway, a course on which one runs to reach a goal.

The organized course of study undertaken by a student in or under the aegis of a n institute is called curriculum. Old and new concepts of curriculum

Importance of curriculum:

1. A comfort in teaching process
2. Communication skills
3. Economical needs
4. Sequenced and continued activities
5. Student participation

Objectives of curriculum:

1. A source to achieve national objectives
2. An analysis of the achievement of national objectives
3. Curriculum and social life
4. Curriculum and social adjustment

A good curriculum:

1. Should be flexible
2. Continuous and integrated
3. Balanced
4. There should be scope
5. Moral and religious values
6. Provision for individual differences
7. Dynamic and life centered

Foundations of curriculum

Those basic forces that influence and shape the content and organization of the curriculum are called curriculum foundations.

Philosophical Foundations:

What is fact? What is good? What is truth?

1. Ontology: what is fact? (wajoodiyaat)
2. Epistemology: what is knowledge/truth? (ilmiyaat)
3. Axiology (aesthetics and ethics): what is value? (qadriyaat)

Sociological Foundations:

1. Control: Who are the controllers/decision makers?
2. Resource allocation: like budget
3. Structural settings: social environment and changes
4. Ideological settings: intellectual’s role in curriculum
5. Curricular dimensions: educational and ethical distinctions
6. Social hurdles: like woman education

Psychological foundations:

1. Educational objectives
2. Student characteristics
3. Educational process
4. Teaching methods
5. Evaluation
6. Teacher training

Principles of curriculum development

Principles of selection

1. Accuracy
2. Comprehension
3. Variety
4. Stability
5. Adjustability
6. Importance

Principles of management:

1. Continuity
2. Flexibility
3. Balance