As the art spread to other countries in Southeast Asia, each disciple would add movements to the original teachings. In 1372, a cultural exchange began between the people of Okinawa and the Fukien Province in southern China. A large group of Chinese families were sent to Okinawa to bring elements of Chinese culture to Okinawa, including chu'an fa. This cultural exchange, along with the establishment of Okinawan embassies in various parts of southeastern Asia, brought many fighting techniques to Okinawa. The native Okinawan fight art of "to de" also continued to be practiced.

      In 1609, the Satsuma clan in southern Kyushu, Japan, was granted permission by the Tokugawa dynasty in Japan to march on Okinawa. The victory by the Satsuma clan ended Okinawan independence. To ensure his continued dominance, Iehisa Shimazu of the Satsuma clan issued a ban on all weapons by Okinawans. Any weapons found in an Okinawan's possession was confiscated and the owner or holder of such weapons was severely punished. However, the Okinawans could not bear subjugation in silence resulting in many clashes between the ruling Japanese and Okinawans. The Okinawans, being "weaponless" were forced to use their bare hands and feet and whatever implements they had (generally farm implements) to fight. Many practitioners of chu'an fa and to de formed small groups to study in secret. For years, these small groups were ineffective on their own to overthrow the Japanese rule of Okinawa..

      In 1629, after of series of secret meetings, the various small Okinawan groups banded together to form a united front against the Japanese ruling class. As a result, a new fighting style developed called "te" (meaning "hand"). In the early development of te, practices were kept secret because of the Satsuma ban on weapons. Three leading schools of te (located in Shuri, Naha, and Tomari) practiced "underground."

      There are several legends (a type of oral history) which fill in some of the missing history during the "secret" period. One legend describes a man named "Sakugawa" from Shuri who went to China in 1724 to learn chu'an fa. Many years later, he returned to Shuri and after demonstrating his skill, developed a strong following. Thus began the "Sakugawa" school of "karate" which was probably based on pure chu'an fa.

      Another Shuri resident named Shionja also went to China to study chu'an fa. He returned with a Chinese master called "Kusanku" to Okinawa in 1784. This was another style of chu'an fa practiced in Okinawa, giving rise to another school of "karate".

      Interestingly, the name "te" for the "new" style developed in Okinawa was expanded to "karate" using the Japanese characters for "China hand". This was the name applied to the various styles of chu'an fa as practiced in Okinawa.

      In 1875, Satsuma's occupation of Okinawa became official when the Ryukyu Islands (Okinawa) became part of the Japanese Empire. However, for unknown reasons, the secrecy of practice relating to "Karate" was generally maintained until 1903 when it began to be publicly demonstrated in Okinawa. After 1903, Karate was practiced more openly and in 1904 Karate was officially introduced to the Okinawan public schools as a regular part of the physical education curriculum.

      In 1915, Karate was officially introduced in Japan by Gichin Funakoshi, a master from Shuri. Gichin Funakoshi studied Karate under two masters in Okinawa, Yasutsune Itosu and Yasutsune Azato. Gichin Funakoshi is recognized as being responsible for systematizing modern Karate. He demonstrated Karate at the Butokuden (the martial arts center at the time) in Kyoto, Japan. It was Funakoshi's demonstration of Karate that stirred interest in Karate and it was Funakoshi's life work to bring Karate into wide practice in Japan. After a major university in Japan invited Funakoshi to set up a karate curriculum, hundreds of students began to study Karate under his guidance.

        Following Funakoshi's example, other Karate masters from Okinawa traveled to Japan to teach their art, including Kenwa Mabuni, the founder of Shito-Ryu Karate. Each master who taught Karate took the basic techniques taught by the masters in Okinawa and added techniques and influences from their own study of Karate to the basics. Just as "to de" and chu'an fa were blended to form te, each Karate master would add new elements to their art. These additions and influences would reflect a particular instructor's "style".

      The "style" practiced by IKF, Shito-Ryu, was founded by Kenwa Mabuni (1887-1952) between 1930 and 1935. In developing Shito-Ryu, Mabuni blended techniques from two schools whose styles he had studied: Shorin-ryu (Master Yasutsune Ankoh Itosu) in Shuri; and Shorei school (Goju-ryu style, Master Kanryo Higaonna) in Naha. Mabuni also learned several empty hand kata and kobudo kata from Arakaki (1840-1918) and some white crane Kung Fu forms from Woo Yin Gue, a chinese tea merchant in Okinawa. The influences of these styles are evident in the various Kata taught by IKF.

      In 1935, the various masters who had opened schools in Japan were asked by the Butokuden to declare a name for the style each practiced. Several styles or "Ryu" were declared, including: Shotokan, Shito-Ryu, Goju-ryu, Shorin-ryu, Wado-ryu, Kushin-ryu, Kan-ryu, and Shindo Jinen-ryu. At about this same time, the Butokuden decided to change the character for "kara" from the character for "China" to a character meaning "empty". Thus, "Karate" became "empty hand." One reason for this change was the idea that the Butokuden wanted to change the image of karate from a vicious fighting system and to develop a philosophical basis that made it more compatible with buddhist religious philosophy.

      In the United States, chu'an fa was brought to Hawaii and the U.S. mainland as the Chinese immigrated. "Karate" was brought to Hawaii with the first Okinawans. However, neither chu'an fa nor karate was openly practiced. Both arts were generally reserved for "family" members. One of the earliest documented public demonstrations of Karate occurred in 1927 when Kensu Yabu, an early Okinawan Karate master demonstrated karate at the Nuuanu YMCA in Honolulu and later on Kauai. One of the first schools in Hawaii was established in 1933 when two Okinawan instructors named Suiho Mutusu and Kamesuke Higaonna agreed to open a school at the Asahi Photo Studio near Honolulu's Aala Park. The school eventually evolved into the Hawaii Karate Seinin Kai. Mutusu and Higaonna eventually returned to Japan, leaving one of their students, Thomas Miyashiro, as the leader of the school.

      In 1934, Chojun Miyagi, another Okinawan master, was invited to teach Karate in Hawaii. From May 29, 1934 to January 15, 1936, Chojun Miyagi taught Karate on Kauai, then went back to Japan. Shortly after Miyagi left in 1936, Mr. Miyashiro retired and the Hawaii Karate Seinin Kai ceased to exist.

      From 1936 to 1942, no known Karate instructors were openly teaching karate. However, in 1942, a Hawaii-born Japanese-American named James M. Mitose began teaching a martial art called "Kosho-ryu kempo" which was essentially derived from chu'an fa. While this style of "kempo" was not technically "karate" (not having come from Okinawa/Japan), Mitose's kempo had many similarities to karate because of its chu'an fa connection.

      In 1956, a more directly traceable form of Okinawan karate was reintroduced in Kapahulu. Carl Shimomi, a Hawaii-born Japanese studied Shorin-ryu karate in Fukuoka, Japan while a member of the U.S. Armed Forces. In 1957, Walter Nishioka, who also studied Shorin-ryu, organized the Goshinkai Karate School. Shortly after that, Goju-ryu karate which Chojun Miyagi had taught on Kauai was revived by Mitsugi Kobayashi, George Miyasaki, and Kenneth Murakami.

      Concurrently, on the mainland, the first documented commercial "Karate" school was opened in 1946 in Phoenix, Arizona by Robert Trias. His style was an "Shorei-Gojuryu" style with influences from other fighting styles. In 1954 Ed Parker of Hawaii initiated the first commercially successful karate school in Provo, Utah, teaching a "kempo" style he learned from James Mitose.

      It was not until 1956 that a "pure" form of Karate was introduced to the United States mainland when Tsutomu Oshima opened his school of Shotokan karate in Los Angeles.

      In 1965, Master Chuzo Kotaka, at the age of 23, came to Hawaii on a goodwill tour. Having won the 1962 All Japan Karate Championship, the most prestigious karate tournament in Japan (even today), he was asked by many to start a Karate school on the mainland and in other countries. Fortunately for Hawaii, Sensei Kotaka chose Hawaii. In 1966, Sensei Kotaka established the International Karate Federation (IKF). He currently holds the rank of 8^th dan. IKF is considered by many to be the "best" Karate School in the United States based on the performance of the students of IKF over the years. Many IKF students have attained National and World titles and have won numerous awards. Several of Sensei Kotaka's students are recognized as excellent instructors and officials in the karate world. IKF has been recognized by the Amateur Athletic union as the number one karate school in the nation for the past ten years (1988 to 1998). IKF has represented the USA team in the WKO, WKC, and WKF World Championships in junior and adult divisions.

Selected Bibliography:

Haines, Bruce A: Karate's History and Traditions, Revised Edition, Rutland, Vermont and Tokyo, Japan, 1995.

Saito, Del, Karate-Do: The Way of Shito-Ryu, Grants Pass, Oregon, 1991.