ROMBLON STATE COLLEGE

Odiongan, Romblon

INSTITUTE OF BUSINESS AND ACCOUNTANCY

COURSE SYLLABUS

COURSE NO. Research 101 (Methods of Research)

COURSE CREDIT 3 units

COURSE DESCRIPTION

The course is the stage of preparation for a much higher research work – the thesis writing. The ideas, concepts, and principles of research methodology - the problem, the basic research methods, preparation of the research instruments, review of related literature and studies, sampling and guidelines in the selection of statistics to be used are thoroughly discussed to equip the students with necessary skills in future research endeavors. A theory-based hypothesis is emphasized and promoted.

The approach to the course is hands-on. While concepts are discussed, exercises are simultaneously done by the students. The course focuses in business problems and related fields. It accentuates proposed descriptive studies but encourages experimental attempts as well. The learner will also be introduced to the SPSS (Statistical Packages for Social Sciences) and MS Excel softwares, convenient and efficient ways of treating data through computers.

COURSE OBJECTIVES

The course targets students to have developed the following competencies:

a. To describe the nature of research and its importance in the business community;

b. To determine the advantages and disadvantages of descriptive, experimental and historical research methods;

c. To determine the validity and reliability of a research instrument;

d. To use the most appropriate statistical technique in a particular study; and

e. To make a research proposal relevant to business management and administration.

COURSE OUTLINE

I. Research and the Problem for Investigation

a. Definitions of Research

b. Determinants of a Problem

c. Sources of a Problem

d. Characteristics of a Good Problem

e. The Title

f. Hypotheses

g. Scope

h. Limitations

i. Definition of Terms

j. Variables

k. Writing Chapter I of the Proposal

II. Theory and the Review of Related Literature

a. The Theory

b. The Review of Related Literature

c. Research and Conceptual Literatures

III. The Theoretical/Conceptual Framework

a. Theoretical Framework Defined

b. Styles of presenting the Theoretical or Conceptual Framework

c. Writing Chapter II of the Proposal

IV. Research Methods

a. Research Methods By Purpose

b. Research Methods By Procedure

V. The Descriptive Method

a. Aims of Descriptive Research

b. Limitations of a Descriptive Research

c. Types of Descriptive Studies

i. Case Studies

ii. Surveys

iii. Developmental Studies

iv. Follow-up Study

v. Documentary Analysis

vi. Trend Analysis

vii. Correlational Studies

VI. The Experimental Method

a. Definition and Purpose

b. The Experimental Process

c. Manipulation and Control

d. Threats to Experimental Validity

e. Threats to Internal Validity

f. Threats to External Validity

g. Experimental Designs

i. Pre-Experimental Designs

ii. True Experimental Designs

iii. The Pretest-Posttest Control Group Designs

iv. The Solomon Four-Group Designs

v. The Posttest Only Control Group Design

vi. Quasi-Experimental Designs

1. The Time-Series Experiment

2. Counterbalanced Designs

vii. The Non-Equivalent Control Group Design

viii. Factorial Designs

h. Methods of Historical Researches

i. Strengths and Limitations of Historical Research

VII. The Historical Method (*optional)

a. Definition of Historical Research

b. Major Procedures of a Historical Study

VIII. Sampling

a. Sampling

b. Random Sampling

c. Basic Principles in Random Sampling

i. Table of Random Numbers

ii. Lottery or Fish Bowl

iii. Systematic Sampling

iv. Stratified Sampling

v. Cluster Sampling

vi. Non-Random/Judgment Sampling

IX. Data Collection Methods

a. Attributes of a Good Instrument

i. Reliability

ii. Validity

iii. Sensitivity

iv. Feasibility

b. Test Construction

i. Content Validation

ii. Face Validation

iii. First Trial Run

iv. Item Analysis

v. Second Run or Final Test Administration

vi. Evaluation of the Test

c. Methods of Data Collection

i. The Observation Method

ii. The Questioning Technique

iii. Objective Methods

X. Selecting Appropriate Statistical Techniques

a. Primary Considerations in the Choice of a Statistical Test

b. Secondary Considerations

c. Some Statistical Tests and Their Uses

i. The Z-test of one sample mean

ii. The t-test for independent sample means

iii. The t-test for dependent sample means

iv. One-Way Analysis of Variance

v. Two-Way Analysis of Variance

vi. The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation

vii. The Chi-Square Test

viii. The Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Test

ix. The Chi-Square Test of Association

d. Data Analysis by the Computer (Excel and SPSS)*

e. Preparing the Data for the Computer*

f. Interpreting the Computer Output*

g. Writing Chapter III of the Proposal

XI. Writing the Proposal and the Report

a. Proposal Defined

b. Parts of the Research Report

i. Introduction and the Problem

ii. The Review of Related Literature and the Hypothesis

iii. The Research Methodology

iv. The Research Findings

v. Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations

COURSE REQUIREMENT

1. A Research Proposal containing Chapters I, II and III. This is to be done by pairs and be submitted based on the agreed target dates.

2. Written Output of the assigned topic to be reported.

BASES OF GRADE

Involvement 10%

Quizzes 20%

Output/Oral Report 30%

Major Exam 40%

Total 100%

REFERENCES

Calderon, Jose F.; Gonzales, Expectacion C. (1993) Methods of Research and Thesis Writing; National Book Store Inc., Metro Manila 263 pages

Sevilla, Consuelo G.; Ochave, Jesus A.; Punzalan, Twila G.; Regalla, Bella P.; Uriarte, Gabriel G. (1992) Research Methods, Revised Edition; Rex Printing Company Inc., Quezon City 332 pages

Prepared by:

MR. EDDIE G. FETALVERO

Research 101 Instructor

e-mail: egf94@yahoo.com

website: http://www.fetalvero.2ya.com (visit this for more tips about the course)

WORKING TABLE FOR RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Research 101 (Methods of Research)

PARTS	Description	Deadline	Date Submitted	Corresponding Points	Your Score
Problem and Title		June 23-24		5	(5 )
Chapter I	Introduction	July 3-4		5		(20)
	Statement of the Problem			3
	Hypotheses			3
	Significance of the Study			3
	Scope and Limitation of the Study			3
	Definition of Terms			3
Chapter II	Review of Foreign Related Literature	Aug 4-5		5		(20)
	Review of Local Related Literature			5
	Theoretical Framework			10
Chapter III	Procedure	Sept. 18-19		15		(40)
	Research Instrument			8
	Dummy Tables			10
	Statistical Tests			7
Bibliography		Sept. 18-19		5	(5)
Abstract		Sept. 25-26		10	(10)
TOTAL					(100)

CHAPTER I

Research and the Problem for Investigation

Definitions of Research

· searching for a theory, for testing theory, or for solving a problem.

· puposive, systematic and scientific process of gathering, analyzing, classifying, organizing, presenting, and interpreting data for the solution of a problem, for prediction, for invention, for the discovery of truth, or for the expansion or verification of existing knowledge, all for the preservation and improvement of the quality of human life.

· Kerlinger (1973) defines it as a systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena.

Experience, authority, inductive and deductive reasoning may also solve problems but their procedures are not considered scientific.

Determinants of a Problem:

1. Absence of information resulting in a gap in our knowledge

2. Contradictory results

3. Unverified facts

4. Unchartered areas

Sources of a Problem

1. Experiences and observations

2. The vast amount of literature in your own field

3. Courses that you have taken

4. Journals, books, magazines or abstracts

5. Theses and dissertations

6. Professors and classmates

Characteristics of a Good Problem

1. The topic should be of great interest to you.

2. It should be useful for the concerned people in a particular field.

3. It should be novel.

4. It should invite itself to complex designing.

5. It should be completed in the allotted time desired.

6. It should not carry moral and ethical impediments.

The Title

Steps to be taken after choosing a topic:

1. Define, limit and specify the topic.

2. Start defining major terms in the title.

3. Survey the literature.

Functions of the title

1. It draws in summary form the content of the entire investigation.

2. It serves as a frame of reference for the whole thesis.

3. It enables the researcher to claim the title as his own.

4. It helps other researchers to refer to the work for possible survey of the theory.

Title must briefly contain the following:

1. The variables you will study

2. The relationship among the variables

3. The target population

Twenty substantive words, function words not included, is the maximum allowable length of a title.

The Hypotheses

Hypothesis is a tentative explanation for certain behaviors, phenomena, or events which have occurred or will occur. It is the most specific statement of a problem.

Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis

1. Researchable

2. It should state, in definite terms, the relationship between variables.

3. Testable

4. It should follow the findings of previous studies.

Functions of the Hypothesis

1. Introduces the researcher’s thinking at the start of the study.

2. Structures the next stages or procedures of the study.

3. Helps provide the format for the presentation, analysis, and interpretation of the data in the thesis.

Types of Hypothesis

a. Null Hypothesis - means no existence of an effect, an interaction, of relationships, or of difference.

b. Alternative Hypothesis - considered as the operational statement of the research hypothesis. When the alternative hypothesis is based on theory, it is called deductive hypothesis, while, when the it is based on observations, it is called inductive hypothesis.

c. Non-directional Hypothesis - does not state any direction. It is two tailed.

d. Directional Hypothesis - shows a direction of the effect or of difference. It requires a one-tailed test.

The researcher must spell out his hypothesis at the start of the study.

Assumption - any important fact presumed to be true but not actually verified. It does not need testing, unlike the hypothesis. Some researchers spell out their assumptions while others do not.

Scope

Scope of the investigation defines where and when the study was conducted and who the subjects were. The scope sets the delimitations and establishes the boundary of the study.

Limitation

A limitation is a phrase or aspect of the investigation which may affect the result of your study adversely over which you have no control. It must be stated honestly.

Definition of Terms

Definition of terms is necessary in research in order for the researcher and the reader to be thinking in terms of the same thing.

Types of Definition

A. Conceptual Definition - also known as constitutive definition, is that which is given in dictionaries. It is the academic or universal meaning attributed to a word or group of words. It is mostly abstract and formal in nature.

B. Operational Definition (OD) - is also known as the functional definition. Kerlinger (1973) gives two forms of operational definition.

a. Measured OD - states the way the concept is measured in the investigation.

b. Experimental OD - researcher spells out the details of the manipulation of a variable.

Variables

A variable is a characteristic that has two or more mutually exclusive values or properties. Kerlinger says that variables are the constructs or properties being studied . When in your study you are only using one level of sex, sex is a constant, not a variable.

Types of Variables

a. Dependent or Criterion variable - the outcome or objective of the study. In lay language it is the result.

b. Independent or Variate variable (IV) - that property or characteristic that makes the outcome or objective vary or differ.

a. Manipulable IV - also called the active variables because there is a possibility of randomly assigning individuals or groups. Examples are variables such as reinforcement, method, use of instructional materials, use of feedback and others.

b. Non-manipulable IV - also called assigned, organismic, classifatory or attribute variables because they cannot be changed. Examples of these are factors like gender, mental ability, socio-economic status (SES), brain damage, aptitude, race and age.

A variable that is dependent inone investigation maybe independent in another.

Tips on writing Chapter I

The Introduction

1. Present the problem, what it is all about?

2. Discuss the reason/s why it is necessary to conduct the study.

3. Include the historical background of the problem, if there is any.

4. Explain the earnest desire to have a deeper and clearer understanding of situation, circumstance, or phenomenon.

5. Discover something better or worse.

6. Describe the locale.

7. Link the introduction and the statement of the problem.

Statement of the Problem

1. State the whole problem.

2. State the specific questions or subproblems upon which the problem is broken up.

Assumptions and Hypotheses

1. Only experimental studies need written assumptions and hypotheses; descriptive studies do not.

Importance or Significance of the Study

1. Discuss the rationale (reason), timeliness or relevance of the study.

2. Possible solutions to existing problems or improvement to unsatisfactory conditions.

3. Who are to be benefited and how they are going to be benefited.

4. Possible contribution to the fund of knowledge.

5. Possible implications.

Scope and Delimitation of the Study

1. A brief statement of the general purpose of the study.

2. The subject matter and topics studied and discussed.

3. The locale of the study, where the data were gathered or the entity to which the data belong.

4. The population from which the respondents were selected. This must be large enough to make the generalizations significant.

5. The period of the study. This is the time, either months or years, during which the data were gathered.

Limitation of the Study

1. The weaknesses of the study beyond the control of the researcher.

Definition of terms:

1. Only terms, words, or phrases which have special or unique meanings in the study are defined.

2. Define terms operationally, as used in the study

3. Definition should be brief and clear.

4. Definitions maybe taken from encyclopedias, books, dictionaries, magazines etc.

5. Acronyms should be spelled out.

Chapter 2

Theory and the Review of Related Literature

Theory

Theory as defined by Kerlinger (1973) is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions, and propositions that presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomenon.

Functions of Theory

1. It provides the study with a conceptual framework justifying the need for investigation.

2. It leads you into the specific questions to ask in your own investigation.

3. It presents the relationship among variables that have been investigated.

Review of Related Literature (RRL)

RRL involves the systematic identification, location and analysis of documents containing information related to the research problem.

Functions of RRL

1. Provides the conceptual or theoretical framework of the planned research.

2. Provides information about past researches related to the intended study.

3. Gives a feeling of confidence since by means of RRL all constructs related to the study will be on hand.

4. Gives information about the research methods used, the population and sampling considered, the instruments used in gathering the data and the statistical computation in previous research.

5. Provides findings and conclusions of past investigations which you may relate to your own findings and conclusions.

Types of Related Literatures

1. Research Literature - refers to published or unpublished reports of actual research studies done previously.

2. Conceptual Literature - pertains to articles or books written by authorities giving their opinions, experiences, theories or ideas of what is good and bad, desirable and undesirable within the problem area.

Tips as to where and how to pool RRL

1. The library is usually the source of both conceptual and research literature.

2. Be ready to spend the whole or even days in the library (or during series of vacant hours).

3. Start reviewing conceptual literature first since it is more readily available than research literature (Fox, 1969).

4. The card catalog is to a library as the index is to a book. However there are varied kind of indices that can help you get access to information (i.e., Asiaweek, Reader’s Digest, internet...etc.

5. Thesis abstracts and theses themselves are other sources of literature.

Footnoting

Types of Footnotes

1. Source footnotes - specify the author of the reference or editor, title, facts of publication and the page number where an idea or a quotation was taken.

a. Footnote of first reference - this is taken from books with one author¹, with two au

thors², with three authors³, with more than three authors⁴, with an editor instead of an au thor⁵, with a translator⁶, and from an article in a magazine⁷, or a news paper⁸, or an ency clopedia⁹ or a book¹⁰.

______________________________________________________________________________

¹Don M. Wolfe, Language Arts and Language Patterns (new York:The Odyssey Press, Inc., 1961),pp.15-20.

²Lawrence R. Campbelle and Roland Walsely, Newsmen at Work (Boston: Houghton Mifflin and Company, 1049), p.35.

³Rebecca Hayden, Dorothy Pilgrim, Aurora Quiroz Haggard, Mastering American English (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Incorporated, 1965), pp.40-48

⁴Marion C. Sheridan, et.al. The Motion Picture and the Teaching of English (New York: Appleton Century-Crofts, 1965), p.37.

⁵William M. Browsky (ed.), Studies in Medieval and Renaissance History III (Lincoln: University of California Press, 1965), pp. 273-96.

⁶Suzette Macedo (trans.), Diagnosis of Bazilian Crisis by Celso Furtado (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965), pp. 147-53.

⁷Jane Rees Miller, “Teaching Term Paper Skills to University Students”, English Teaching Forum, Vol. XXV (April, 1987), pp. 13-20.

⁸Virgilio Dionisio, “The other side of Devaluation”, Manila Bulletin, April 6, 1987, p.7.

⁹William Markowitz, “Time, Measurement and Determination of,” Encyclopedia Americana, 1965 XXVI, 631-633

¹⁰George G. Stern, “Measuring Noncognitive Variables in Research on Teaching,” Handbook on Research on Teaching, ed. N.L. Cage (Chicago: Rand Mc Nally an dCo., 1963), pp. 433-444.

______________________________________________________________________________

2. Source footnotes of second reference - abbreviation of Latin words for footnotes of second reference are used according to the following instructions.

a. Ibid, from “Ibidem,” which in English means, “in ¹the same place as the one immedi ately preceding,” is used if a footnote refers to the ²same work as the one immediately ³preceding it.

Example:

¹Victor Parcell, Chinese in Southeast Asia, 2nd ed. (Oxford University Press, 1965) p.9.

²Ibid

³Ibid, p.24

· The second example means the same as source as number 1, the same page.

· The third example means the same reference as 1 but the idea is found on a different page.

b. Loc. Cit. from “loco citato,” which means “¹in the place cited,” is used when the foot note refers to the ²same work and the same page as the one previously mentioned but not immediately preceding. ³This is placed after the author’s surname.

Example:

¹Liu Ti Chen, “Comments by a Chinese Scholar,” The Chinese in the Philippines, 1570-1770, Vol. II ed. Alfonso Felix Jr. (Manila: Solidaridad Publishing House, 1966), p. 264.

²Dr. Juan Regalado, “We the People,” Manila Times, May 5, 1971, p.8

³Liu Ti Chen, loc. cit.

c. op.cit., “opere citto,” which means “in the work cited,” is used when the ¹footnotes refer to the same work to ²different pages as the one previously mentioned but not im mediately preceding. Like loc. cit., it is also placed after the ³author’s surname.

Example:

¹Alfonso Felix Jr. (ed.), Chinese in the Philippines 1570-1770, Vol. I (Manila: Solidaridad Publishing House, 1966), pp. 12-16

²Alexander Garth, “The Silent Invasion,” Manila Times, Jan. 10, 1972, p.23.

³Felix op. cit., p.31

2. Explanatory footnotes - relatively easier to prepare than source footnotes because they consist generally of a brief statement explaining a word or phrase in the text.

The Chinese was ordered by the Governor Ronquillo to live on a track land on the south bank of the Pasig River. This site was the first ⁶Parian or the Chinese quarter which was erected in 1581.

_____________________________________________________________________________

⁶The Parian was the China town of Manila. It was a self-sufficient community separated from the city.

· The foregoing example shows portion of a text containing an index number and a footnote below explaining the use of the word “Parian”.

CHAPTER III

The Theoretical/Conceptual Framework

The theoretical/conceptual framework (TF) refers to the set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions, and propositions that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables. It is the basis of a research problem.

Styles of presenting the TF

1. Journalistic Style - TF is integrated with the problem in Chapter I . RRL is also incorporated in Chapter I. It is either labeled or not.

2. Style 2 - TF is incorporated in Chapter I but there is still a separate chapter for the RRL.

3. Style 3 - usual contents of chapter I are presented. Chapter II contains the related literature and TF is labeled at the end of Chapter 2.

Example of a Theoretical Framework

Mental Health States as Influenced by Personal,

Situational-Environmental, and Intellective Factors

CHAPTER IV

Research Methods

Types of Research Methods by Purpose

1. Basic or Pure Research – conducted primarily to test or arrive at a theory. Its main objective is to establish general principles without known or intended practical application of the findings. It is in search of knowledge for knowledge’s sake.

2. Action Research – feature of applied research which involves discovering and identifying a problem in the local setting and solving it in the same setting without intention of generalizing its results.

3. Applied Research – refers to the application of theory to the solution of problems. It is conducted for the purpose of applying, or testing theory, and evaluating its usefulness.

Research and Development Program (R and D) – deals with formulating and testing theory and then developing materials for instruction and for other purposes.

Types of Research Methods by Procedure

1. Historical Method – investigates ‘what was’.

2. Descriptive Method – investigates ‘what is’

3. Experimental Method – investigates ‘what will be.’

DESCRIPTIVE METHOD (DM)

Definitions:

- a method that describes the nature of a situation as it exists at the time of the study and to explore the causes of particular phenomena.(Travers,1978)

- involves collection of data in order to test hypotheses or to answer questions concerning the current status of the subject of the study. (Gay, 1976)

- determines and reports the way things are, it has no control over what is, and can only measure what already exists.

Advantages:

1. DM is the best approach to be used in practical situations since all the characteristics and existing interactions present in “real-life” situations can be easily observed.

2. DM can be logically used in studies which aim towards information dissemination or in creating good public relations.

3. DM lends itself appropriately to investigations that provide normative standards based on what is prevalent.

4. DM is more expansive and encompassing than any other methods of investigation.

5. DM supplies the necessary information in a new situation specially the factors that may serve worthwhile in experimental undertaking.

6. DM applies to varied kinds of problems.

Disadvantages:

1. The tendency of misusing DM is very high. (fault of the method per se and fault of the method when poorly used.)

2. DM provides only with limited information about the effects of variables under study, hence no real evidence of cause and effect is expected.

3. The validity of DM is easily affected when the researcher is not aware of the delicate and inconsistent actuations of its respondents.

Ways of Obtaining Descriptive Information (WODI)

WODI	DESCRIPTION
Use of Questionnaire or Opinionnaire	Target: Opinion and attitudes of a group of people Technique: Interview, survey
Observation	Activity Analysis: centers on the actual behavior of participants. Product Analysis: centers on the product of the participant’s behavior. Situation analysis: centers on the determination of the sets of conditions in which participants’ behavior occurs.
Use of Devices or Descriptive Survey Instruments	Target: To conduct measurements on target participants Normative survey – any study which establishes standards of what is prevalent. Developmental study - combination of several cross-sectional/longitudinal studies.

COMMON TYPES OF DECSRIPTIVE RESEARCH

TYPE	DESCRIPTION			ADVANTAGE/ DISADVANTAGE	EXAMPLE
1. Case Study	■ Involves studying ONE person or just a few persons over a considerable period of time. This entails discovering and studying all the important variables which have contributed to the history of the subject.			Advantages: 1. It is in-depth. 2. An opportunity to gain insights into the basic concepts of human behavior. Disadvantages: 1. Lack of breadth. 2. Researcher’s tendency to become subjective and prejudiced.	T –Group experience of selected administrators in Cotabato through Multiple Case Study.
2. Survey	■ Involves a relatively large number of cases. It determines information about the variables rather than the individuals. ■ It is employed to measure the existing phenomenon without inquiring into why it exists. ■ Data gathered are for problem solving rather than hypothesis testing. ■ Census survey covers the entire population of interest. ■ Sample survey deals only with a portion of the population.			Advantages: 1. It reveals what is typical, average, or normal against which the behavior or performance of an individual can be judged or evaluated. 2. Its results may be used for prediction. 3. It makes possible the formulation of generalizations. 4. Ease in getting respondents. 5. Instruments in gathering data are easy to determine, construct, validate and administer. Disadvantages: 1. Lack of manipulation over independent variables. 2. Statistical devices cannot always separate the effects of several independent variables. 3. It has a low degree of control. 4. The instrument for gathering data may lack validity, reliability, or adequacy.	*School – qualifications of teachers, methods and techniques of teaching, facilities, achievements of students, administration and supervision, curriculum, teacher-pupil ratio) *Market – kinds of people that purchased certain products, how packaging, advertising, and displaying affect buying, prices etc. Motivation survey (why do they buy such products)
	Characteristics of Survey Designs
	Design	Population Studied	How sampled
	1. Longitudinal a. Trend b. Cohort c. Panel 2. Cross-sectional	General Specific General or specific General or specific and could include subpopulations	*RS at each **DCT RS at each DTC Initial RS is used throughout the DTC RS from all populations at one point in time
	* Random sample **Data collection time
3. Correlational Study	■ It is designed to determine the extent to which different variables are related to each other in the population of interest. Here you will determine how much variation is caused by one variable in relation with the variation caused by another variable.			Advantages: 1. Ease in design and data gathering technique 2. Does not require a large sample. Disadvantages: 1. Uncertainty of the relationship when the instrument used is not reliable and valid.	Relationship between store hours and daily sales; mental ability and creativity.

Chapter V

THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

Definitions:

- most prestigious method of advancing scientific knowledge (Travers)

- only research method that can truly test hypotheses concerning cause-and-effect relationship; represents the most valid approach to the solution of problems, both practical and theoretical. (Gay)

- represents ‘Method of Difference” which means that the effect of a single variable applied to one situation can be assessed and the difference determined. (Mill)

Characteristics:

1. An independent variable is manipulated.

2. All other variables except the dependent variables are held constant; and

3. The effect of the manipulation of the independent variable on the dependent variable is observed or measured.

The Experimental Process

1. Identification, selection and definition of a problem.

2. Setting up the hypothesis.

3. Selection of subjects and measuring instruments.

4. Selection of a design.

5. Execution of procedures.

6. Analysis of data.

7. Formulation of conclusions.

Groups involved in experimental process:

Ex. “Effects of Music on the speed in solving puzzles among grade one pupils”

Control group E x p e r i m e n t a l G r o u p s

No music	Pop	Rock	Classical
1.75 mins	3 mins	4 mins	1.5 mins

Experimental group – receives the treatment under investigation.

Control group – receives a different treatment or the usual method it was using before.

Notes:

1. Ascertain that the groups you are comparing are equal in all other variables at the start of the experiment (except for the treatment).

2. Give the group sufficient exposure (trials) to the treatments you are investigating; this means you are giving the treatments the chance to work.

Manipulation

▫ Manipulation of at least one independent variable is the one single characteristic which differentiates all experimental research from all other researches.

▫ Some variables are non-manipulative like sex, mental ability, socio-economic status. They are not active variables.

▫ Manipulative variables are those whose subjects maybe chosen randomly, thus they are active variables. Experimental variables are active variables, they are the ones that can only be manipulated.

Control

- refers to efforts on the part of the researcher to remove the influence of any variable (other than the independent variable) which might affect performance on the dependent variable.

Intervening variable – a variable that worked within the independent and dependent variable caused by lack of control or researcher’s ignorance of what is done by the respondents.

When is an experiment valid?

- if the results are due only to the manipulated independent variable.

- If they are generalizable to situations outside of the experimental setting.

Types of Experimental Validity

1. Internal validity – refers to the degree to which results can be attributed to manipulation of the independent variable and not to something else.

2. External validity – refers to the condition wherein results are generalizable, or applicable to groups and environments outside of the experimental setting.

Threats to Internal Validity:

1. History – refers to the occurrence of any event which is not part of the experimental treatment but which may affect performance on dependent variable.

2. Maturation – refers to physical or mental changes which may occur within the subjects over a period of time. These changes may affect the subjects’ performance on the measure of the dependent variable.

3. Testing – refers to improved scores on a posttest which are a result of subjects having taken a pretest and not of the experimental treatment.

4. Instrumentation – refers to unreliability, or lack of consistency, in measuring instruments which may result in invalid assessment of performance.

5. Statistical regression – occurs when subjects are selected on the basis of their extreme scores and refers to the tendency of the subjects who score highest on a pretest to score lower on a posttest, and of subjects who score lowest on a pretest to score higher on a posttest.

6. Selection of subjects – occurs when subjects are chosen by groups and not by individuals. These groups may be different before the study begins, and this initial difference may at least partially account for posttest differences.

7. Mortality – refers to the fact that subjects who drop out of a study may share a characteristic such that the absence has a significant effect on the results of the study.

8. Selection-Maturation Interaction, etc. – means that selection may also interact with factors such as history and testing but it is selection and maturation that commonly interact.

Threats to External Validity:

1. Population validity – asks the question “What population of subjects can be expected to behave in the same way as did the sample experimental subjects.”

2. Ecological validity – concerned with generalizing experimental effects to other environmental conditions. It asks the question, “Under what conditions (that is, settings, treatments, experimenters, dependent variables, and so on) can the same be expected?”

Specific threats:

1. Pretest-Treatment interaction – occurs when the subjects respond or react differently to a treatment because they have been pretested. The treatment effect is different than it would have been had the subjects not been pretested.

2. Selection-Treatment Interaction – occurs when group selected are not representative of the population so desired in the experiment. This nonrepresentativeness may result in the findings of the experiment good only for the experimental sample and therefore are not generalizable.

3. Specificity of Variables – refers to the fact that a given study is conducted with a specific kind of subjects, using specific measuring instruments, at a specific time, under a specific set of circumstances. In other words, the specificity of everything might hamper generalizability.

4. Reactive arrangements – refers to the artificiality of the experimental setting and the subjects’ knowledge that they are participating in an experiment.

5. Multiple Treatment Interference – occurs when the same subjects receive more than one treatment so that there is a carry over from one treatment to the next.

Controlling Extraneous variables

1. Randomization – subjects are assigned to groups at random.

2. Matching

a. Person-to-person

b. Matching groups

c. Ranking Method

3. Homogeneous group

4. Using subjects as their own control

5. Analysis of Covariance

Special Topic:

EX POST FACTO/CAUSAL COMPARATIVE METHOD

Definitions:

- “from after the fact” (Gay, 1976)

- research method wherein dependent variable is immediately observable and the researcher’s task is to find out the antecedents that gave rise to such consequence.

- Systematic empirical inquiry in which the researcher does not have direct control of independent variables because their manifestations have already occurred or because they are inherently not manipulable. (Kerlinger)

- Researcher attempts to determine the cause, or reason, for existing differences in the behavior or status of groups of individuals.

Comparison between Ex Post Facto and Experimental Researches

E X POST FACTO	EXPERIMENTAL
□ Researcher observes an effect and then tries to determine the cause	□ Researcher creates the cause, makes the group different, and observes the effect on a particular dependent variable.
□ Lacks control	□ Independent variable is manipulably controlled.
□ Subjects are chosen through randomization	□ Subjects are chosen through random assignment
□ Selective manipulation (subjects that fit the variable under study are selected) specially in demographic variables (sex, IQ, SES, geographical location, educational background… etc.)	□ Purposive manipulation (subjects are assigned to the variable under study)

Making conclusion

1. The data gathered do not guarantee a completely valid conclusion about the findings.

2. The conclusion cannot state a direct cause-and-effect relationship.

3. The apparent cause-effect relationship is tentative.

Applications:

1. Correlational studies

2. Correlation per se vs. ex post facto research

Disadvantages:

1. Inability of the researcher to manipulate the independent variable purposively.

2. Researcher’s lack of power to assign subjects randomly to the levels of the variables under study.

3. Lacks control which may risk improper interpretation.

Sample investigations:

□ Factors that are related to creativity: Parent-child interaction; Off-school activities; SES; Intelligence; Personality; and Self-Concept

□ Perceived evaluation by significant others: Its relationship to self-concept, academic and personality traits

□ Some factors in job satisfaction among employees in a five-star hotel

□ The relationship of selected variables (age, sex, SES, IQ, Birth Order) to the moral judgment of Elementary School Children

□ Factors associated with parental acceptance-rejection among Filipino urban parents

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Sample – small group that represents a population.

Sampling – process which involves taking a part of the population, making observations on a representative group, and generalizing the findings to a bigger population.

- strategies of picking up a subgroup from a larger group and use this as a basis for making judgments about the larger group.

Steps in sampling:

1. Indentification of the population

2. Determination of the required sample size

3. Selection of sample

Detemining the sample size (Use the Slovin formula)

n = N

1+Ne²

where: n = sample size

N = population size

e =desired margin of error

Margin of Error – percent allowable for non-precision because of the use of the sample instead of the population.

SAMPLE SIZE FOR SPECIFIED MARGINS OF ERROR

(by Pagoso, Garcia, Guerrero de Leon)

Population	Margins of Error
	+-1%	+-2%	+-3%	+-4%	+-5%	+-10%
500	*	*	*	*	222	83
1,500	*	*	638	441	316	94
2,500	*	1250	769	500	345	96
3,000	*	1364	811	517	353	97
4,000	*	1538	870	541	364	98
5,000	*	1667	909	556	370	98
6,000	*	1765	938	566	375	98
7,000	*	1842	959	574	378	99
8,000	*	1905	976	580	381	99
9,000	*	1957	989	584	383	99
10,000	5000	2000	1000	588	385	99
50,0000	8333	2381	1087	617	387	100

* - assumption of normal approximation is poor and that the sample size formula does not apply.

Minimum acceptable sizes:

1. Descriptive research – 10% of the population. For smaller populations, a minimum of 20% may be required.

2. Correlational research – 30 subjects

3. Ex post facto or causal comparative research – 15 subjects per group

4. Experimental research – 15 – 30 subjects per group