*The
Causes of the Renaissance*
-
The Middle Ages, which began around 500 AD, finally came
to an end around 1450 AD.
-
Though the beginning of the Renaissance, which signaled
the end of the Middle Ages, occurred in the city-states of Italy, the
same
reasons that caused the Renaissance to begin in Italy caused it to
appear in
the rest of Western Europe.
-
The conditions that led to the Renaissance in Italy are as
follows:
1.
Because of the Crusades,
and the new trade routes, Europeans
began to come in contact with other, more advanced civilizations, which
influenced them greatly.
2.
The Church, due to the
scandals that occurred, lost much of
its power, and people began to doubt its ultimate authority.
3.
Due to trade, the middle
class grew, and people began to
accumulate vast sums of money. They then wanted to enjoy and show off
their
wealth, which led to a philosophy of enjoying this life instead of
simply
waiting for the next one.
4.
Competition between
wealthy people for status led to
developments in education and art, since wealthy people, wanting to be
respected, would compete to see who was the most educated or had
sponsored the
most artists.
*The
Definition of the Renaissance*
-
The Renaissance (French Term) means the rebirth of
culture. However, it would be more accurately put as the rebirth of
ancient
culture since the Middle Ages did have a form of culture, just not the
same
culture as the ancients.
-
An essential element of the Renaissance was the beginning
of humanism, which glorified the culture of Ancient Greece and
Rome.
*The
Four Aspects of Humanism*
-
Humanism was a new philosophy that really defined the
Renaissance. Although it was an intellectual movement and didn’t really
spread
to most people, it had a huge impact on the age.
-
Though many believe that humanism replaced religion in the
Renaissance, in reality, the two coexisted. Most humanists were
actually
religious, and the only difference between the beliefs of church and of
the
humanists had was that the humanists believed that this life was
important and
should be enjoyed while the church did not, and felt that people should
focus
on awaiting the afterlife instead.
-
Humanism consists of four essential aspects, which are as
follows:
1.
Admiration and emulation
of the Ancient Greeks and Romans.
2.
Philosophy of enjoying
this life, instead of just waiting
for the next one.
3.
The glorification of
humans and the belief that individuals
are can do anything.
4.
The belief that humans
deserved to be the center of
attention.
-
Humanism also had a subdivision known as civic humanism.
The civic humanists believed that participation in public affairs was
essential
for human development, and that individuals should not cut themselves
off from
society and study the world. Instead, they should help make changes in
it by
becoming a part of government. Eventually, the beliefs of the civic
humanists
spread to the humanists as a whole.
*The
Humanists*
-
Petrarch à (1304 - 1374) was the
first humanist of the Renaissance. He
greatly admired the Greeks and Romans and preferred them to his own
contemporaries, who he saw as barbaric. He even felt that the only true
examples of moral and proper behavior could come from the Ancients.
Though he
was a lawyer and cleric by trade, he devoted himself to writing poetry,
papers,
and letters, which were often to the famous Greeks and Romans.
-
Boccaccio à (1313 – 1375) was a
writer who became famous for a
collection of short stories called The Decameron that is now
thought of
as the first prose masterpiece ever written in Italian. The Decameron
is a book
relating how a group of young Florentines went to a secluded villa to
escape
the plague and began telling stories. It was one of the first books
intended
for entertainment and is groundbreaking in its frank treatment of
relationships
and its creation of ordinary, realistic characters.
-
Baldassare Castiglione à writer who
is best known for his novel, The Courtier, which, by taking the
form of
a conversation between the sophisticated men and women of a court in
Urbino,
became a manual of proper behavior for gentlemen and ladies for
centuries to
come.
-
Guarino da Verona & Vittorino da Feltre à were
educators who turned the ideals of the humanists into a practical
curriculum.
They founded a school in which students learned Latin, Greek,
mathematics,
music, philosophy, and social graces.
-
Marsilio Ficino à was a member of a new,
later group of humanists called the
Neoplatonists, who believed in studying the grand ideas in the work of
Plato
and other philosophers as opposed to leading the “active life” the
civic
humanists lead. Ficino believed that Plato’s ideas showed the dignity
and
immortality of the human soul.
-
Giovanni Pico à another Neoplatonist who
believed that he could reconcile
all philosophies and show that a single truth lay behind them all.
*Humanist
Art*
-
The area in which the humanists really excelled was art.
Though some of the novels and essays written in the time have become
classics,
none of their writing (or any other area) ever came close to being as
brilliant
as their art.
- The differences between Medieval art and Renaissance art are numerous, and very dramatic, for a complete change in style occurred.
-
Also, during the Renaissance, great artists, for the first
time, gained special recognition and prestige instead of simply being
craftsmen.
*Characteristics
of Medieval Art*
-
Paintings were lacking in depth and perspective.
-
Paintings usually lacked a background.
-
Always themed religiously and usually focusing on heaven
or holy people.
-
The paintings were not realistic, and made no sense
geometrically or mathematically.
-
The subjects did not show any emotions, except for calm or
piety.
*Characteristics
of Renaissance Art*
-
Emulation of the Ancient Greeks and Romans.
-
Good use of depth in paintings.
-
Linear (further away = smaller) and atmospheric
(further away = hazier) perspective.
-
Paintings began to have more detailed backgrounds.
-
Not necessarily religious, more focus on earthly themes
and humans.
-
More realistic, geometrically precise and mathematically
accurate.
-
Subjects showing signs of more emotion.
-
Contraposto posture, in which the subject is
shifting his or her balance.
*Artists
of the Early Renaissance*
-
Giotto à (1267 – 1337) was a
painter famous for the solid bodies,
the expression of human emotion, and the suggestion of landscape in his
paintings.
-
Masaccio à (1401 – 1428) was a
painter who used the inspiration of the
ancients to put a new emphasis on nature, on three-dimensional human
bodies,
and on perspective. He also was the first painter since the ancients to
show
nudes in his paintings.
-
Donatello à (1386 – 1466) was mainly
a sculptor whose focus was on the
beauty of the human body. He made some of the first nude sculptures
since the
ancients.
-
Brunelleschi à (1377 – 1446) was an
architect whose work was
groundbreaking for its simplicity, symmetry, balance and harmony.
Additionally,
he created the largest dome built in Europe since the ancients in a
cathedral
in Florence.
*Artists
of the High Renaissance*
-
Leonardo à (1452 – 1519) was a
painter (and a scientist, writer, and
inventor) whose paintings are remarkable for their technical
perfection, in
other words, for their good use of angles, perspective, and a detailed
background.
-
Raphael à (1483 – 1520) was a
painter who used his mastery of
perspective and ancient styles to produce works of harmony, beauty, and
serenity and convey a sense of peace.
-
Michelangelo à (1475 – 1564) was a
painter who also experimented in
poetry, architecture, and sculpture. Most of his work focuses on
individuals
who always give a sense of strength and ambition.
-
Titian à (1479 – 1576) was a
painter who painted scenes of luxury in
such a vivid, immediate way that his paintings seem real to the viewer.
*The
Short Term Causes of the Reformation*
-
John Wycliffe à (1320 – 1384) was an
English reformer who argued that the
Church was becoming too remote from the people and advocated for
simplification
of its doctrines and less power for the priests. He believed that only
the
Scriptures declared the will of God and questioned transubstantiation,
the ability of the priests to perform a miracle turning the wine and
bread into
Christ’s blood and body. His views were branded heretical, but he was
able to
survive in hiding though his remains were dug up by the Church in 1428
and
burned. He left an underground movement called the Lollards who
faced
constant persecution.
- Jan Hus à (1369 –
1415) was a Bohemian who argued that priests weren’t a holy group,
claiming
instead that the Church was made up of all of the faithful. He
questioned
transubstantiation, and said that the priest and the people should all
have
both the wine and the bread. He was burned at the stake in 1415, but
his
followers, led by Zizka, raised an army and won against the
emperor, who
let them to set up their own church (the Utraquist Church) in which
both the
wine and bread were eaten by all.
- The Avignon Exile and
Great Schism
à were both
events that greatly undermined both the power and prestige of the
Church, and
made many people begin to question its holiness and the absolute power
of the
Papacy. People realized that the Church was a human institution with
its own
faults.
- The Printing Press à before the invention of
the
printing press in the mid-1400s, many people didn’t have access to
information
or changes in religious thought except through word of mouth and the
village viellées.
With the printing press, new ideas, and the dissatisfaction with the
church,
could spread quickly, and people could read the Bible for themselves.
*The Long Term Causes of
the Reformation*
- The growth in the power of
the secular king and the
decrease in the power of the Pope.
-
The popular discontent with the seemingly empty rituals of
the Church.
-
The movement towards more personal ways of communicating
with God, called lay piety.
-
The fiscal crisis in the Church that led to corruption and
abuses of power – IMPORTANT!
*Abuses
of Church Power*
-
Simony à the sale of Church
positions, which quickly led to people
becoming Church officials purely for economic motives, and not for
spiritual
ones.
-
Indulgences à the sale of indulgences
was the biggest moneymaker for the
Church. When a person paid for an indulgence, it supposedly excused the
sins
they had committed (the more $, the more sins forgiven) even without
them
having to repent. Indulgences could even be bought for future sins not
yet
committed and for others, especially those who had just died, and were
supposed
to make a person’s passage into heaven faster.
-
Dispensations à payments that released a
petitioner from the requirements
of the canon law.
-
Incelebacy à church officials getting
married and having children.
-
Pluralism à having more than one
position at a time.
-
Nepotism à control by a particular
family.
*The
Definition of the Reformation*
-
The Reformation was the final splitting of the Western
Church into two halves.
-
The two branches of the Church were Catholicism and
Protestantism.
*Martin
Luther*
-
Luther (1483 – 1546) was born into a middle class family
in Saxony, Germany. He got a good education and began studying law.
After
almost being hit by lightning, he decided to become a monk.
-
As a monk, he became obsessed with his own sinfulness, and
pursued every possible opportunity to earn worthiness in God’s eyes
(for
example, self-flagellation) but he was still not satisfied, for he felt
that
God would never forgive a sinner like himself.
-
Finally, he had an intense religious experience that led
him to realize that justification in the eyes of God was based on
faith
alone and not on good works and sacraments.
-
Then, in 1517, he saw a friar named Johann Tetzel
peddling indulgences and claiming that by buying them, people could
save
themselves time in the purgatory. Since he said that by buying the
indulgences,
people could excuse sins, people were coming to buy the indulgences in
droves.
This outraged Luther, and on October 31st, 1517 he posted his Ninety-Five
Theses on the church door.
-
The theses explained that the Pope could remit only the
penalties he or canon law imposed, and that for other sins, the
faithful had
only to sincerely repent to obtain an indulgence, not pay the Church.
-
The theses made the profits from the indulgences drop off,
and angered the order that supported Tetzel. Luther and the rival monks
began
to have theological discussions, which were at first ignored.
-
But, by 1520 Luther had written three radical pamphlets:
1.
An Address to the
Christian Nobility of the German
Nation à made a
patriotic appeal to Germans to reject the foreign Pope’s authority.
2.
The Babylonian Captivity à attacked
the belief that the seven sacraments were the only means of attaining
grace,
saying that only two, baptism and the Eucharist (which were mentioned
in the
Bible) were important.
3.
The Liberty of the
Christian Man à explained
his principle of salvation by faith alone.
*The
Diet of Worms*
-
Luther’s writings could no longer be ignored, and, in
1520, Pope Leo the Fifth excommunicated him, and Luther responded by
calling
the Pope an anti-Christ. So, Charles the Fifth ordered him to offer his
defense
against the decree at a Diet of the Empire at Worms.
-
At Worms, Luther refused to retract his statements, asking
to be proved wrong with the Bible. So, Charles ordered that Luther be
arrested
and his works burned, but Prince Frederick of Saxony came to Luther’s
aid and
allowed Luther to hide in his castle. There, Luther established the
Lutheran
doctrines.
*Lutheran
Doctrine and Practice*
-
Codified in the Augsburg Confession the Lutheran
beliefs are as follows:
1.
Justification by faith
alone, or the belief that faith
alone, without the sacraments or good works, leads to an individual’s
salvation.
2.
The Bible as the only
authority, not any subsequent works.
3.
All people are equally
capable of understanding God’s word
as expressed in the Bible and can gain salvation without the help of an
intermediary.
4.
No distinction between
priests and laity.
5.
Consubstantiation (the
presence of the substance and Christ
coexist in the wafer and wine and no miracle occurs) instead of
transubstantiation.
6.
A simplified ceremony with
services not in Latin.
*The
Appeal of Protestantism*
-
Appeal to the peasants:
1.
Message of equality in
religion, which they extended to life
in general.
2.
A simplified religion with
fewer rituals, which made it
easier to understand.
3.
Luther rebelled, which
inspired many of them to do the same.
-
Appeal to the nobles:
1.
No tithe to pay, so $
stays in the country.
2.
Since they are against
Charles for political reasons, they
can justify it by becoming Protestant.
3.
No more church owned land,
so they can get more land.
4.
No tithe for peasants, so
they can tax them more.
-
Appeal to the middle class:
1.
No tithe to pay, so more $
for them.
2.
Now they can read the
Bible and interpret it in their own
way.
3.
Concept of individualism –
you are your own priest.
*Other
Forms of Protestantism*
-
Zwingli à (1484 – 1531) had beliefs
very similar to Luther, except
that he believed that NONE of the sacraments bestowed grace, and that
they were
purely symbolic. He also felt that for people to lead godly lives, they
had to
be constantly disciplined and threatened – Calvinism without
predestination.
-
Radicals à many radical sects broke
out, and after Munster (where a
sect called the Melchiorties gained political control of the city and
began to
establish a heavenly Jerusalem on earth) they were all persecuted.
Since some
believed that Baptism should only be administered to adults who asked
to be
baptized, they were all called the Anabaptists (rebaptisers).
-
Calvin à (1509 – 1564) formed the
second wave of the Reformation.
Though Lutheranism and Calvinism both believed in people’s sinfulness,
salvation by faith alone, that all people were equal in God’s eyes and
that
people should follow existing political authority, Calvin believed in predestination
or the concept that God, being all knowing, already knows if a person
is going
to go to heaven and become part of the elect or not. Though behavior on
earth
technically had no effect on the decision, it was established that
moral people
tended to be part of the elect. Calvinist communities were model
places, with
very strict moral codes that were vehemently imposed. The church and
its
doctrines were also very well defined in the Institutes of the
Christian
Religion and all Calvinists were supposed to make their communities
worthy
of the future elect.
*Existing
System of Government in England*
-
Local administration à members of the gentry
(not technically members of the
nobility, but still had large estates and were dominant political
figures) were
chosen to become JPs. The JPs were voluntary unpaid officials that
served as
the principal public servant in the more than forty counties. Since the
gentry
wanted appointments for reasons of status, the king could always count
on their
support.
-
Lawmaking à though the
Parliament grew in power, it always remained subordinate to the crown.
Nevertheless, the English kings knew that they couldn’t take severe
measures
without its consent. The Parliament contributed to the unification of
the
country, even though it took away power from kings.
-
Judiciary à the common
law (based on the interpretations and precedents made by individual
judges),
not Roman law was in effect, and traveling judges administered it. This
helped
unify the country as well.
*Changes
made by Henry VII and Henry VIII*
-
Henry VII à founder of the Tudor
dynasty, Henry VII came to power
shortly after the War of Roses, a civil war that weakened the nobles
greatly.
He was a conservative, and strengthened the crown by applying the
traditional
methods, such as:
1.
He carefully built up
funds without overtaxing his subjects;
he put collection and revenue in the hands of a small, efficient group
of his
officials. Avoided foreign entanglements.
2.
He increased the power of
the JPs and had the Star Chamber
(a group of royal councilors) resume hearing appeals, which
strengthened royal
power and decreased noble power because nobles could no longer control
the
local courts.
-
Henry VIII à tended to enact more
radical measures than did his father,
such as:
1.
In 1513 he beat invading
Scottish army @ Flodden, near
England’s north border.
2.
Decided to break with the
Roman Catholic Church after advice
from Thomas Cromwell. This had the effect of stimulating the economy
since
church funds stayed in the country and the church lands were annexed.
It also
greatly strengthened the Parliament and gave it more responsibility.
3.
The break with the Church
also had the effect of making a
reorganization of the administration necessary. They made six
departments, each
with specific functions. Cromwell was the executive of the councils. A
Privy
Council was also established, consisting of the king’s advisers.
*Existing
System of Government in France*
-
Local administration à there was no real system
for local government, and
aristocrats were virtually independent rulers until the new monarchs
came
along.
-
Royal administration à had three departments:
the Chancery (had charge of formal
documents), the Treasury ($), and the Parlement of France (the court of
law).
Roman law was used, which helped the king because the monarch was then
able to
issue ordinances.
-
Lawmaking à
representative assemblies, known as Estates, limited the throne’s power
because
the estates had to approve measures made by the king before they were
enacted.
The throne was forced to negotiate with the estates, especially to
raise taxes.
Nevertheless, the Estates never were as powerful as the English
Parliament. The
taxes (the sales tax, hearth tax, and salt tax) all went to the crown
and after
1451, they could be collected on the king’s authority alone.
-
Army à unlike the
English, they had a standing army that was rarely used but always a
threat, so
it increased the king’s power. However, it took an enormous amount of
funding.
*Changes
made by Louis XI and Charles VIII*
-
Louis XI à began his reign after the
Hundred Years War, which weakened
the crown. At the beginning of his reign, there was anarchy, and the
king had
no power. However, changes he made reestablished the crown’s power. For
example:
1.
He beat Duke Charles the
Bold of Burgundy, who was Charles V
great-grandfather (ick!) and he then reannexed Burgundy except for the
Low Countries,
which the duke’s daughter kept.
2.
Nicknamed “the spider”
because, using his diplomatic
tactics, he annexed so much crap.
-
Charles VIII à he began the invasion of
Italy, which was eventually a
failure, since the Hapsburgs kicked his butt. However, it did provide a
distraction for the restless and aggressive nobles.
*Changes
made by Louis XII, Francis I and Henri II*
-
Louis XII à began reign after Charles
VIII and before Francis I. He
made many changes, including:
1.
He increased the size and
complexity of the administration.
2.
Adopted the sale of
offices (simony) that stimulated social
mobility and corruption.
3.
Due to the fact that the
clergy and nobles were exempt from
taxation, the crown was forced to rely on the lower classes, which
couldn’t
provide enough money to upkeep the standing army and the country. So,
under
Louis XII, the country began taking loans from banks (Fugger).
-
Francis I à took over after Louis
XII, made most changes of any new
monarch in France, such as:
1.
Gaining power over the
Church with the Concordat of Bologna
(1516), which allowed him to make appointments, and, though it was not
stated,
it effectively allowed him to control the Church without breaking from
it (see
Henry VIII).
2.
He
began a major
reorganization of the government. He legalized the sale of offices,
formed and
inner council and centralized all tax gathering and accounting
responsibilities
in 1523.
3.
He passed the lit de
justice, which states that if an
assembly is delaying passing a monarch’s law the monarch can then
appear before
the assembly and make it the law.
4.
During his reign the
Estates General stopped meeting and
consequently lost influence.
5.
After his reign, the
monarchy was the strongest that it had
ever been. Unfortunately, the advent of the Reformation screwed
everything up
again – Calvinism!
-
Henry II à son of Francis I. Under
his rule, the French finally lost
the Italian war to the Hapsburgs.
*Existing
System of Government in Spain*
-
The Iberian Peninsula was divided into three different
sections, as follows:
1.
Portugal à in midst
of its overseas exploration.
2.
Castile à the
largest and richest area. It was still fighting the Muslims on its
Southern
frontier. This led to nobles gaining a lot of political power.
3.
Aragon à small area
same size as Portugal.
-
In October 1469 Isabella of Castile married Ferdinand of
Sicily, which led to a ten-year civil war which the two monarchs won.
*Changes
made by Ferdinand and Isabella*
-
Although Ferdinand and Isabella made no attempt to form a
monolithic state (all united) they did somewhat unify Spain into a
federation
where the nobles lost power.
-
Each province was treated differently, and changes were
made as follows:
1.
Aragon à remained a
federation of territories administered by viceroys who were appointed
by the king
but allowed local customs to remain intact. Each province was allowed
to keeps
its own representative assembly, called the Cortes.
2.
Castile à in
Castile, they were determined to assert their superiority and restore
order to
the countryside (which was screwed up by civil wars). They did this by
establishing the Cortes of Castile, an assembly dominated by urban
representatives who shared the wish for order since peace helped trade.
The
Cortes also had tribunals to try criminals.
-
They also made general changes, such as:
1.
They overhauled the entire
administration by saying that
“ability rather than social status should determine appointments.” They
kicked
out the nobles as local administrators, and replaced them with people
from a
lesser class of nobility called the hidalgos (similar to gentry
in
England) who occupied positions called corregidors, which were
local
judicial officers.
2.
They weakened the clergy
and after they got rid of the
Muslims in 1492, the Pope allowed them to make appointments. So, by
Charles V’s
reign they had power over the church.
3.
Also, in 1478, the Pope
granted them the power to have an
independent Inquisition to kick out all non-Christians, such as the
Muslims and
Jews. Without other religions, Spain was more united. Plus, the
Inquisition,
like the Italian wars, kept the nobles busy.
4.
They instituted a sales
tax so revenues increased. They were
able to this because, like the French, the Spanish taxes could be
raised
without the Cortes consent.
5.
They instituted Castilian
law, which all came from the
throne and was similar to Roman law.
6.
After Isabella’s death,
Ferdinand concentrated on foreign
affairs and reannexed several provinces from France and entered the war
in
Italy, which under Charles V (Hapsburg) they won against Henry II of
France.
They won because they had the best standing army.
*The
Holy Roman Empire under Charles V*
-
Charles V was the king of Spain but the Cortes didn’t like
him because he requested additional tax funds so that he could take the
Spanish
troops and try to unify the HRE. So, effectively, he wasted all of
Spain’s $
from the new world on stupid wars! Naturally, when Charles V left for
war, the
poor people revolted but the nobles put down the rebellion before
Charles V
came back. The nobles sided against the peasants only because along
with
attacking Charles, they attacked the nobles.
-
After the uprising, he kept his administration entirely
Spanish. While he was fighting outside wars, he relied entirely on a
skilled
administrator, Francisco de los Cobos, who enlarged the administration
and the
system of councils. He made two types of councils, one of each
department of
government and the other for each territory ruled. At the head was the
Council
of State. A federation emerged, like US.
-
Though corruption was widespread, centralization gave
monarch lots of power. Spain’s administration was the most detailed,
though it
was not always the most efficient.
-
Charles’ major problem was $ because he wasted all of it
on his stupid wars (like the one against the Ottomans, and all the ones
against
the Schmalkaldic League in HRE) in Europe. Since Aragon was more
independent,
the entire tax burden fell on Castile, but Castile did get a monopoly
of trade
with the New World, which gave them lots of silver. However, the
monopoly
eventually led to foreign domination since no one else could get the $.
Consequently, Philip II had to declare Spain bankrupt several times
because of
the wars.
*Elizabeth
I (1558 – 1603)*
-
Queen Elizabeth was a skillful queen who was very able to
sense the mood of her people, and very good at using propaganda to
promote her
image.
-
She was a very successful queen, and the only issue she
left unresolved was the question of succession. However, at the last
minute,
her Scottish cousin James I was chosen.
*James I (1603 – 1625)*
- In 1603, James took over
and was greeted eagerly as
he traveled from Scotland to London. However, both the religious
controversy
and the conflict between the king and Parliament were unresolved, and
soon
began to cause trouble for the new king.
-
James was a complete believer in divine right monarchy
or the belief that that kings rule by divine right and should have
absolute
power. He believed Parliament was unnecessary.
-
Millenary Petition à petition given to James
as soon
as he reached the capital signed by 1,000 churchmen which asked James
to move
the Anglican Church further away from Catholicism (no popery, no
bishops) and
to simply and “purify” the services instead. James responded by saying
simply,
“No bishop, no King,” because he felt that the bishops, as traditional
figures
of authority should stay, since otherwise people could also begin
questioning
his authority.
-
Gunpowder Plot à plot by Catholics to
assassinate king and Parliament whose
discovery raised a lot of anti-Catholic sentiment in England.
-
Foreign Policy under James I à James
wisely kept England out of the Thirty Years War (though this made some
Englishmen unhappy since it was seen as a failure to support the
Protestant
cause) and he even tried to make peace with Spain by attempting to
marry his
son, Charles I, to a Spanish princess (which enraged the public).
However, the
Spanish turned Charles I down, which sparked a conflict. Instead,
Charles was
married to Henrietta Marie of France, another Catholic. But, just as
the war
against Spain began, James died and Charles took over.
*Charles
I (1625 – 1649)*
-
Though Charles was sure that the war would unite the
country under his leadership, it actually provided Parliament with more
opportunities to force him to make concessions, since he needed to tax
to
support the war and Parliament’s approval was needed for new taxation.
-
Several Parliaments were called and dissolved in rapid
succession for the king was unwilling to concede on the issue of
Buckingham.
Finally, in 1628, Parliament had enough of the king’s behavior (he was
illegally forcing loans from people in order to avoid relying on
Parliament for
$) and decided to draw up a petition stating their traditional rights.
-
The Petition of Right à passed in
1628 (Charles simply agreed to be able to get more $), it stated the
rights of
Parliament, such as:
1.
Due Process of Law (Habeas
Corpus)
2.
No taxation w/out
Parliament’s consent.
3.
No billeting of troops.
4.
Parliament must be called
frequently (not specific).
-
Though Charles accepted the Petition, in reality, like his
father, he was an absolutist.
-
Next, Parliament moved to impeach Buckingham, which the
king objected to, so he dissolved Parliament. The duke was then
assassinated,
and the king called the Parliament back into session expecting more
cooperation. Parliament, however, was angry because, under his wife’s
influence, Charles had begun to favor the High Church and not enforce
the laws
against popery.
-
So, in 1629, Parliament tried to enact laws against
Catholics to reverse the drift towards the High Church. Charles was
unable to
stop them since he was in desperate need of $ to support the war
against Spain,
but he finally decided to dismiss Parliament, and sent word to the
Speaker of
the House of Commons, who was supposed to immediately give up his
chair.
Instead, the infuriated members of the House forced the speaker back
into the
chair and passed three quick anti-Catholic resolutions.
-
Charles was enraged and dissolved Parliament, swearing he
would never call another one.
-
So, for 11 years Charles attempted to rule completely
w/out Parliament. Since Parliament had no way to call itself back into
session,
the only weapon it had against Charles was public opinion.
-
Because of four events, public opinion gradually shifted
towards Parliament. The events were:
1.
Charles’ treatment of his
opponents à for
example, John Eliot’s imprisonment in the tower of London until he
apologized,
which he never did.
2.
Archbishop Laud à appointed by the king,
the archbishop was a zealous
believer in the High Church who was strongly against Puritans (imposed
Anglican
Prayer Book).
3.
Ship $ Case à to raise
$, the king spread a tax that was formerly only applicable to coastal
towns to
all towns, which Parliament considered a violation of their rights.
4.
The imposition of the
Anglican Prayer Book which lead to a
Scottish rebellion.
-
Since putting down the rebellion required $, Charles was
forced to call Parliament.
-
Short Parliament à because the Parliament
demanded
concessions, it was quickly dissolved.
-
Long Parliament à again, Charles was forced
to call a Parliament, and
although most of his opponents from the Short Parliament were
reelected, he was
forced to pass the following to get $:
1.
Bill of Attainder against
Strafford (king’s chief advisor)
that demanded Strafford’s death.
2.
Bill of Attainder against
Archbishop Laud (who would die
after 4 years imprisonment).
3.
Law that gave up king’s
right to dissolve Parliament.
4.
Triennial Act à required having
Parliament meet every three years.
5.
No taxation w/o
Parliament’s approval (taxes that had been
passed that way declared illegal).
6.
The abolishment of the
Star Chamber.
7.
Impeachment of Bishops in
Anglican Church.
-
Just as the Parliament was getting ready to impeach the
queen, Charles had enough and entered the chamber with a section of the
army to
arrest the leaders, but they had already left. This began a civil war.
Charles’
last chance for peace was to sign the 19 Propositions, which would
state Parliament’s
superiority, but he refused to sign, so civil war began!
*Civil
War*
-
The civil war consisted of two phases, which were as
follows:
1.
King vs. Parliament (1642
– 1646) à the king
quickly raised an army of mercenaries, while Parliament allowed
Cromwell to
take over and form the New Model Army, which won.
2.
Parliament vs.
Parliament’s Army (1646 – 1649) à Cromwell
splits from most of the Parliament since he is an Independent (believes
in
freedom of religions) and they are strictly Puritans. So, everyone
joins
against Cromwell, but he still wins.
*England
Under Cromwell*
-
Cromwell executed the king in 1649, saying he was not to
be trusted, and then purged Parliament of all dissenters (600 à 60 people,
called Romp Parliament) which got him firmly in control.
-
Cromwell soon became a military dictator, and he divided
England into 12 military districts that were ruled by martial law.
However, he
was unable to make any lasting changes.
-
He was far ahead of his time in his religious toleration
(which was limited, since it didn’t include Catholics and Anglicans,
but was
still remarkable for the time) but did not believe in democratic rule.
-
Levellers à faction that wanted all
people to vote.
-
Diggers à faction that wanted all
people to vote and wanted to share
all the wealth equally.
-
Cromwell disagreed with both the levellers and the
diggers.
-
After Cromwell died, his son Richard was unable to
maintain power so Charles II was summoned back from France and the
monarchy was
restored.
*Charles
II (1660 – 1685)*
-
Nicknamed “The Merry Monarch” Charles II was very
easygoing and had no problem with compromising with Parliament. After
the
interregnum both parties were eager to compromise.
-
The Treaty of Dover à in 1670, Charles II
secretly
signed the treaty with France. The treaty stated that, in exchange for
military
support (against the Dutch) and $, Charles would try to convert England
back to
Catholicism and to convert back to Catholicism himself.
-
The Declaration of Indulgence à in 1672,
w/out consulting Parliament, Charles issued a Declaration of
Indulgence, in
which he promised not to enforce the laws against Catholics and the
non-Conformists (they were simply included to mask Charles’
pro-Catholic
sentiment). Parliament saw through the trick, however, and demanded
that the
king retract the declaration, which he did.
-
Test Act à in response, Parliament
passed the Test Act in 1673, which
prohibited anyone who had not had an Anglican communion from entering
into the
army or public service. The law was aimed at excluding Catholics.
Charles
allowed the law to be passed, but his used his powers of dispensation
to sneak
some Catholics into public service anyhow.
*James
II (1685 – 1688)*
-
Before James became king, a rebellion caused by the Popish
Plot (a hoax that stated that there was going to be an assassination of
Charles
II to bring James II, a Catholic, to the throne, and that James was
going to
convert the country back) called the Monmouth Rebellion occurred, which
was
easily put down. Public opinion of James was still high, though James’
brutal
handling of the rebels after they were caught somewhat angered and
worried the
public.
-
The first thing James II did was to immediately declare
that he was a Catholic and that he was going to try to convert the
country back
to Catholicism (what a moron). He also, stupidly enough, revealed the
details
of the Treaty of Dover.
-
Next, he tried to romanize (convert back to Catholicism)
Oxford and Cambridge, as well as the army. He romanized the army using
his
powers of dispensation, and he did so because he felt that the only
real source
of power was the army, and in order to control the army, he knew he
needed to
have Catholic, not Protestant, officers.
-
Finally, he passed a Declaration of Indulgence that
was ignored, so he passed another law forcing every bishop to read it
in
church. Seven bishops, however, refused to obey, and they were put on
trial,
and found not guilty (to the king’s astonishment and anger).
-
Still, after all James’ stupidity, Parliament was still
reluctant to revolt since they remembered what had happened last time
and did
not want to repeat the same mistake. Also, since James was getting old
and his
three daughters were Protestants, they figured that he would die soon
and
England would once again have a Protestant ruler.
-
However, James’ wife became pregnant, which was a miracle
at her age, and actually gave birth to a healthy baby boy –
something
that totally changed the scene for Parliament (Oh No!). Parliament,
knowing it
had to act right away, asked William of Orange (married to Mary,
daughter of
James) to invade and take over, which he did. The king fled w/out a
fight as
his top general, John Churchill, deserted him the night before the
battle and
joined the other side.
*The
Glorious Revolution*
-
So, in 1688, William and Mary take over as comonarchs.
William of Orange, the leader of the Dutch who is fighting the French,
was so
thankful to be able to take over England because of its military
strength that
he did not mind being a limited, not an absolute, monarch.
-
Then, Parliament passes the Bill of Rights a
statement that, once and for all, establishes Parliament’s supremacy.
Also, to
please William, Parliament finally passes the Act of Toleration.
*Definition
of the Scientific Revolution*
-
The Scientific Revolution (1543 – 1687) was a period of
time in which many breakthrough discoveries were made in science and
philosophy, as well as an era in which the Europeans’ perception of the
universe
and their role in it was changed forever.
-
Although the SR began by only affecting the scientific and
intellectual elite (5 % of the population or so) the concepts that
originated
during the SR eventually spread to all of the population.
*Science
Before the Scientific Revolution*
-
Prior to the SR, all scientific concepts came from either
the Bible or ancient scientists. Since, during the Middle Ages, most of
the
works of other ancient scientists were lost, Aristotle, Ptolemy, and
Galen
became the only, and therefore ultimate, authorities, on their fields.
The old
beliefs came from:
1.
The Bible à naturally, the main
source of
information, in all respects, was the Bible, whose teachings were taken
literally (for example, if a story stated that the world stopped
spinning,
Europeans believed that the world actually did stop spinning).
2.
Aristotle à was the greatest
philosopher of ancient times. He was
viewed as the absolute authority on physics, although many of his
theories were
clearly wrong! His theories included the belief that there was no
movement
without a mover (which fit in perfectly with church philosophy
since it
made it obvious that God was necessary to move the Earth) and that in
their
natural state all objects were at rest (i.e. all objects wish to
be at
rest, motion is an unnatural state which must be accounted for by an
outside
force at all times). He explained motion by the fact that each of the
four
elements (earth, air, fire and water) wished to return to its natural
place
(for example, a stone falls because it wants to return to the earth).
Air and
fire, he said, always wished to go upwards and earth and water wished
to fall
downwards. Aristotle believed in teleological (based on the
fact that
everything is made for a purpose).
3.
Ptolemy à a great astronomer from
ancient times, he stated that the
earth was the center of the universe and that the sun and all the
planets moved
around in crystalline spheres. Since this alone was not able to
mathematically explain retrograde motion Ptolemy added in epicycles
(circles
within circles), which, through some very complicated calculations,
could
approximate planetary motion.
4.
Galen à though his influence was
far lesser than that of Aristotle
and Ptolemy, Galen’s medical and anatomical theories dominated the
scientific
world for years even though they were proved wrong by dissections.
*Causes
of the Scientific Revolution*
-
One cause was that scientists were simply beginning to
take note of the inadequacies of the standard theories, and, although
they
greatly preferred to make slight changes to the theories (vs.
abandoning them)
some scientists were beginning to question the old authorities.
-
Still, it is unlikely that the scientists would have
challenged the established theories without the influence of the other
ancient
scientists, especially Archimedes, (who were rediscovered during the
Renaissance due to the humanists’ efforts to find ancient works) that
disagreed
with the old theories.
-
Another influence was the interest in what is now regarded
as magic, but was then seen as serious science. These branches of
science
included alchemy and astrology, and were linked by the belief that the
world
could be understood through several secret truths (like Neoplatonism).
These
sciences contributed to the outpouring of new ideas, the questioning of
the old
theories, and the use of math.
-
Lastly, the European interest in technology both
stimulated and made possible the SR. New instruments and devices
(printing press,
telescope, vacuum pump, thermometer, barometer and microscope), often
made for
other purposes, were used in science and made possible many of the new
discoveries. The interest in technology was actually stimulated by the
competition between the different nations b/c applied technology was
used in
warfare.
*The
Major Scientific Discoveries*
-
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 – 1543) à was a
Polish priest and astronomer who shook the foundations of European
beliefs. He
challenged Ptolemy’s system simply because it was too complex
and he
felt that there had to be a better system mathematically. So, based on
mathematics, he developed a new, sun-centered system that placed earth
as the
third planet rotating around the sun. This system eventually ended up
requiring
complex mathematics as well, but Copernicus was a great mathematician
who
easily defended his theory. Copernicus even began developing the
concept of
gravity, for he stated that large masses have their own attractive
forces.
However, he kept the crystalline spheres and did not account for the
stars. His
major work was The Revolution of Heavenly Bodies (1543 – start
of
scientific revolution), which, fearing the Church, he did not publish
until his
deathbed. The book sparked a major controversy, but, because of the
Church, it
was dangerous to express Copernican views openly.
- Giordano Bruno (1548 – 1600) à though
Bruno did not actually develop any additionally theories, he made the
mistake
of openly supporting Copernicus and ridiculing the old philosophy. The
church
arrested him, and after his refusal to recant, burned him at the stake,
making
him a lesson for others.
-
Tycho Brahe (1546 – 1601) à stargazer
who meticulously recorded star data for years.
-
Johann Kepler (1571 – 1630) à a
brilliant mathematician who developed the first theories of motion.
With the
aid of Brahe’s star data (which he acquired since he was Brahe’s
assistant),
Kepler came of with the theory that the planets moved in ellipses, and
that
they did not move at a steady rate. Instead, as they came closer to the
sun,
they accelerated, and they slowed down as they moved away. So, Kepler’s
First
Law of Motion stated that the planets moved in elliptical orbits, and
his
Second Law stated that the planets sweep though an equal area of space
in an
equal amount of time.
-
Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642) à was the
first scientist to use the telescope. With the telescope, he saw
Jupiter’s
moons (the existence of which proved that not everything orbited the
earth, as
was previously thought) and the craters on the moon (which proved that
heaven
was not perfect). Based on his observations, Galileo concluded that the
principles of terrestrial physics could be applied to the heavens as
well. In
1610, he wrote the Starry Messenger and subsequently got in
trouble with
the Spanish Inquisition, which stated that it was not allowed to openly
support
Copernicus. So, in 1632, he wrote the Dialogue on the Two
Great World
Systems (supposedly a work of fiction, but obviously supported
Copernicus).
But this did not fool the church, for they forced him to recant in 1633
and
made him spend the last years of his life under house arrest. There, he
developed his Theory of Inertia, which stated that things in
motion
remain in motion unless acted upon by another force (implies that God
is not
necessary to move planets), which he published in The Two New
Sciences in
1638. Galileo is really considered to be the first modern scientist,
for he
developed the scientific method of experimentation and was one of the
first mechanists
(how, not why).
-
Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727) à brought to
a climax all the previous works in his masterpiece, The Principia,
which
described three laws of motion (in the absence of force, motion
continues in a
straight line; the rate of change of the motion is determined by the
forces
acting on it; action and reaction between two bodies are equal and
opposite)
and a law of universal gravitation (which applied the concept
of gravity
to both the earth and the heavens). Newton also supported observation
and
experimentation, and helped further develop the scientific method.
*The
New Epistemologies*
-
The SR allowed many new epistemologies (theories of
knowledge) to develop. First, the belief in mechanism, which
stated that
scientists should question how (not why) things worked, became more
widespread,
especially through Galileo and Newton. The opposite philosophy to
mechanism is teleology,
which stated that everything is made for a purpose, and was used by
Aristotle.
-
Mainly, however, the discoveries helped the scientific
method develop. The scientific method, which was a new theory on how to
obtain
and verify knowledge, stressed experience, reason, and doubt and
rejected all
unsubstantiated authority. The scientific method revolutionized
science, and
made measurement of data, and mathematics, essential parts of science.
From the
SR onwards, science was based on pure fact – the acquisition of data
and the
testing of theories.
-
The scientific method was actually a combination of two
theories of knowledge:
1.
Empiricism (a.k.a. induction) à was
advocated by Francis Bacon (who wrote New Atlantis a
description
of an ideal society based on science) and supported going from
particular
knowledge (observation) to general knowledge.
2.
Rationalism (a.k.a. deduction) à was
advocated by Rene Descartes (who wrote the Discourse on
the Method of
Rightly Conducting the Reason and Seeking Truth in the Sciences)
who stated
that senses can lie and that the only way to find truth was to
start
from one fact, which was “I am doubting” and proceed to deduce all
other
statements – “I think, therefore I am.” Descartes also stated that
there was an
essential divide between the world of thought and reality (tangible
objects).
In other words, he took Bacon’s statement that religion (faith) and
science
(fact) should be separate and turned it into a far-reaching divide
between the
reality of the world and our perception of it – i.e. The Matrix!
*The
Famous Empiricists*
-
Empiricism was a very influential epistemology, and soon,
it was beginning to be applied to other fields, not just science.
Actually,
several individuals used empiricism to develop political theories.
-
Thomas Hobbes à was a radical Nominalist
who stated that there are no
abstract ideas. Therefore, he was also an atheist (since God is an
abstract
idea – he must not exist). He also did not believe in abstract good or
evil.
Instead, in his Pleasure-Pain Philosophy he stated that, since
abstract
good and evil do not exist, the only good things are ones that bring
one
pleasure and the only bad things are the ones that bring one pain.
Mainly,
however, Hobbes used empiricism to develop a political system. Because,
according to him, in the state of nature (w/out any authority)
there
would be a constant war of all-against-all b/c of competition,
diffidence
(fear), and vain glory (desire to show off). Nobody could ever win the
war,
for, although a law of nature exists which states that if
you want
respect then respect others, people, the terrible beings that they
are,
will break the agreement to get what they want unless there is an
outside
authority enforcing the law. So, the only solution, Hobbes writes in
his
masterpiece, The Leviathan (1651) is ABSOLUTE MONARCHY!
Hobbes’ absolute
monarchy is not based on divine right, but, instead, it is based on a social
contract (an agreement between the people and their ruler) in
which the
people agree that, since anything is better than the war of
all-against-all,
they will give up their natural rights to the government in exchange
for
protection. So, the government is all-powerful, but, in theory, they
will never
need to actually use their power, it is only a threat.
-
John Locke à the next significant
empiricist, he was somewhat a reaction
to Hobbes’ negativity. Locke began with the assumption that, at birth,
each
person is born with a tabula rasa (blank slate) and that all
human
nature and knowledge comes from either direct experience or from
reflection.
Therefore, since all beliefs come from experience, all beliefs are open
to
criticism (this was one of the most powerful arguments for equality and
tolerance
yet). Clearly, Locke was a great supporter of equality, toleration, and
education (make good environments). Locke also used his ideas to write
a social
contract, like Hobbes. Locke’s social contract, however, as stated in An
Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) and Two Treatises
of
Government (1689), had almost nothing in common with Hobbes. Locke
stated
that, in the state of nature, people are neutral, since it all depends
on the
environment. Based on this, he said that, at birth, each person has certain
inalienable rights of life, liberty and property. Since
people must
be forced to respect e/others rights, government is formed, to protect
the
rights. In his contract, government must protect peoples’ rights, but
not more,
and the people must obey the government so long as it does not do more
than
necessary. If it does, people have the right to rebel and establish
another
government. The Declaration of Independence is pretty much just
paraphrasing
JL’s beliefs.
-
David Hume à was the dead end of end
of empiricism. He stated that there
can’t be any absolute knowledge if everything is based on the senses.
So,
people can know things through common sense, but not through philosophy
(which
he says is a joke) and he hates dogma.
*The
Effects of the Scientific Revolution*
-
People felt that human understanding of the universe could
be reduced to mathematical laws.
-
The universe was no longer appeared to be a mystery. In
fact, people felt that it was orderly, rational, and, most importantly,
could
be understood by humans.
-
People felt that humans were able to control their own
destiny.
-
The concept of natural laws developed. These laws,
which were similar to the laws found in science by Newton, could govern
other
aspects of life as well, such as economics, politics, or ethics.
-
Science gained wider appeal and unprecedented popularity.
Additionally, science was institutionalized, and scientific societies
sprung up
throughout Europe, on both the national and personal level. The
institutions
greatly helped the rate of progress.
-
Positive effects of the SciRev à gain of
knowledge, greater toleration (both religious and scientific), less
superstition and more scientific answers, and freedom to deviate from
established theories, which opened the door for new, further
developments.
-
Negative effects of the SciRev à loss of
innocence, loss of traditional faith, loss of faith in heaven, earth is
no
longer regarded as the center (God’s pet project), skepticism, loss of
personal/caring God.
-
Overall, however, the SR was an era of optimism that
gave way to an Age of Reason in the 18th century. People living during
the SR
felt that they had surpassed even the ancients and were at the peak of
human
knowledge, and ideas of progress dominated intellectual discussions.
*The
Arts During the Scientific Revolution*
-
Mannerism à a reaction to the
glorification of humans seen in the
Renaissance, Mannerism featured distorted human figures, strange
perspectives
and unnatural colors and lighting. Mannerism reached its peak during
the
instability of the Reformation, and it reflected the concerns of a
troubled
time. The major Mannerist painter was El Greco (1541 – 1614).
-
Baroque à a reaction to Mannerism,
the Baroque style occurred during
the Counter Reformation, and it reflected the desire for grandeur and
the wish
to inspire and awe people with God’s greatness. A famous baroque
painter was Caravaggio
(1571 – 1610) whose paintings were famous for their depictions of
highly
emotional moments. Other famous baroque painters were Rubens (1577
–
1640), and Veláquez (1599 – 1660), who glorified church
figures and
rulers. Bernini, a baroque sculptor and architect, did the
inside and
outside of St. Peter’s Cathedral in Rome.
-
Classicism à like Baroque, Classicism
attempted to awe the viewer.
However, like the Renaissance, it attempted to awe the viewer with form
and
discipline – also they wished to return to ancient values. Big guy was Poussin
whose paintings were more subdued than the baroque guys (he liked
togas).
-
The Dutch à b/c of Protestantism and
republicanism, Dutch art was less
religious (if religious only personal faith, not that of Church
obviously) and
more precise b/c big buyers were bourgeoisie (merchants not dumb
nobles). Big
dude was Rembrandt who pretty much just painted pictures of
himself
(pretty conceited, but really was just fascinated by human character
and
lighting).
-
Monteverdi à invented concept of opera
and orchestra, after many new
instruments were invented. His masterpiece was Orfeo (1607).
*The
Literature During the Scientific Revolution*
- Michel de Montaigne à invented the essay (what
did he
have to do that for?); influenced by skepticism (“What do I
know?”)
which eventually led to search for self-knowledge (“Know thyself”) and
his
belief that acting righteously is more important than following
doctrine
(sometimes).
-
Cervantes à wrote Don Quixote,
which illustrated the wide gaps
between rich and poor and the difference between reality and fantasy of
his
time by poking fun at society and politics (he thought that politics
disregarded human values).
-
Shakespeare à wrote plays that made
timeless statements about human
behavior and covered a very wide range of topics and emotions. However,
his
plays also reflected his time as death, turmoil and change were always
present.
Also, the vigor in his plays showed the sense of achievement that also
characterized the 1500s (don’t ask what achievements, please!).
-
Corneille à was the dominant French
playwright of the 1600s whose work
reflects the rise of classicism. At first, he refused to follow the
three new
set rules for drama (unity of time, location and plot). His masterpiece
was Le
Cid (1636) which was condemned by Richelieu b/c it did not follow
the three
rules. But, Le Cid was still very popular.
-
Racine à the model classical
dramatist who still generated very
emotional stuff.
*Social
Patterns and Popular Culture During the Scientific
Revolution*
-
Population decreased after the 16th century. In the 17th
century, population began to rise again, leading to overcrowding in the
cities,
bigger armies, increased crime, more taxation (but food prices didn’t
rise =
bad for peasants), and beggars (not enough food for peasants).
-
Also, during the SciRev, social status became mobile because
it became based on wealth and education as opposed to family heritage.
The
emphasis on education led to a higher literacy rate, which led to the
start of
newspapers and book sales. Woman also gained opportunities (in
business).
-
In the East, peasants were reduced to serfdom, and in the
West, many were forced to go into the cities in search of a job
(leading to
chaos @ cities) and village unity decreased b/c of increased population
and
national intervention for law enforcement (intendants).
-
In the village, ancient traditions held fast, for example,
the belief in magic and the yearly festivals such as Charivari. Like
Calvinism,
villagers felt they couldn’t control their own destiny (unlike SciRev,
the
beliefs of which had not spread to the village yet), which led to witch
hunts
that eventually subsided when the SciRev and Counter Reformation (b/c
now
better educated priests who knew what the hell – get it – they were
talking
about) spread to the village.
*Absolutism
in France under Louis XIV*
-
Louis XIV, a.k.a. the Sun King, was the next threat to
universal absolute monarchy.
-
Born in 1638, he ruled from 1643 – 1715. His rule had
three phases:
1.
1643 – 1661 à Cardinal
Mazarin rules b/c Louis XIV was too young. Mazarin put down the Fronde
(rebellion
by nobles, not by peasants) but only after Louis XIV fled Paris and his
entire
family was killed (oops!) which, naturally, left a lasting impression
on Louis
XIV (could have been a reason why Louis XIV did not want his palace @
Paris).
This phase ended when Mazarin died in 1661.
2.
1661 – 1682 à Louis
takes over, builds Versailles, and vows not to let anyone rule over
him. He
built up the standing army, continued centralization of power through
the
bureaucracy, helped the economy grow and said I am the state,
which
pretty much sums it up.
3.
1682 – 1715 à Constant
wars, France vs. the rest of Europe.
*Louis
XIV’s Internal Policies*
-
Versailles à isolated location of
Louis XIV’s palace. Versailles was the
great trap dedicated to the taming of the aristocracy.
Effectively, it drew the nobles away from their affairs and kept them
close to
Louis XIV. Versailles was a constant party, so nobody wanted to leave.
Louis
XIV, however, knew how to balance work w/party so he was a good ruler,
unlike
his successors and the foreign rulers who tried to emulate him.
Versailles was
also the center of French culture.
-
Louis attempted to strengthen the economy by making
reforms (which he later ignored b/c he needed instant $ for wars) by
stimulating manufacturing, agriculture, and trade. He also tried to
reduce the
effect of France’s internal toll, and tried to boost overseas trade.
-
Louis XIV wanted to unify the country and keep his
control over it, which he attempted to do by:
1.
Trying to create religious
uniformity (i.e. trying to make
France Catholic). First, Louis XIV revoked the entire Edict of
Nantes in
order to “clean out” the country from the Huguenots. He also tried to
get a
papal bull to condemn the Jansenists, a Catholic faction, but Louis XIV
died
before he could put the policy into effect. This aspect of Louis’
policies did
not work, for they simply angered productive and hardworking sects of
the
French population while accomplishing nothing. In other words, in
attempting to
unify the country through religion, Louis XIV simply alienated his
people.
2.
Employing intendants
and royal officials to subdue
peasants and collect taxes. Although this helped the economy and the
treasury,
it was terrible for the peasants, who had to pay exorbitant taxes to
support
the wars, and, since nobles couldn’t be taxed, the peasants were forced
to bear
all the burden of taxation.
3.
Keeping the parlements and
nobles (with Versailles) under
control. Additionally, he ruthlessly suppressed all the peasant
rebellions that
occurred.
*Louis
XIV’s Foreign Policies*
-
Louis made very good use of his contrasting advisers,
which helped him greatly @ foreign policy.
-
Colbert à one of Louis’ advisers
who regarded the Netherlands as
France’s biggest enemy b/c of their mercantilist policies. Therefore,
he felt
that all the taxes should go to building up a navy to fight the
Netherlands,
who tended to dominate the overseas trade routes.
-
Louvois à other adviser, who
emphasized the army b/c he felt that
France was threatened by land.
-
First, Louis listened to Colbert, and fought the Dutch.
When this war (1672 – 1678) failed, Louis turned to Louvois and began
land
wars. The result was that France was able to annex a lot of territory,
until
the other countries ganged up on him b/c of the balance of power.
-
Grand Alliance à league formed against
Louis headed by Leopold I
(HRE) and William III (Netherlands/England). The league went to
war
against Louis @ 1688.
-
When Louis began to lose his territories he chose to seek
peace and get rid of Louvois. But the peace didn’t last long, for, in
1690, the
War of the Spanish Succession began.
-
The War of the Spanish Succession à was a war
to gain the Spanish throne for Louis’ family. The previous king had
actually
chosen Philip (Louis XIV’s grandson), and his wishes might have been
respected
had Louis promised to open Spain to trade and not unify France and
Spain under
one ruler. Since he didn’t agree to do so, the Grand Alliance declared
war on
him in 1701. Louis was defeated, but at the Peace of Utrecht in 1713 he
still
was able to secure the throne for his grandson though he couldn’t unify
the
country and had to open Spain to trade. Mainly, the war was a waste of
$ and an
additional on France’s already strained economy.
*France
after Louis XIV*
-
After Louis’ death in 1715 the duke of Orléans
served as reagent (until 1723). The duke was committed to giving power
back to
the aristocracy, so he restored the parlements to power (he gave them
the power
to veto royal laws, a power they would never relinquish) and replaced
royal
bureaucrats w/nobles. On the financial side, a brilliant financier
named John
Law tried to solve the $ crisis w/ government banks, but the
scheme failed.
A positive change was that the peasants were never again to be
oppressed as
they were under Louis XIV (not by much though) b/c government realized
that in
order to be successful, need mass support.
-
After the duke, Louis XV gave almost unlimited
authority to his tutor and adviser, Cardinal Fleury, who was a
cautious,
dedicated man. During Fleury’s time, France began to recover: harvests
were
abundant, population grew, and commerce boomed.
-
The problems that had plagued the reign of Louis XIV,
however, were not solved, and when Fleury died in 1743 the pressures
exploded.
France was plunged into stupid wars that ruined the economy and Louis
XV,
having nobody to replace Fleury, placed his confidence in several
advisers,
most of which were incompetent. Louis XV was uninterested in
government, and he
neglected his work! So, the problems went w/out solving, and only got
worse.
*Absolutism
in Austria under the Hapsburgs*
-
Leopold I à ruler of the HRE (but
really Austria) who established a
court similar to Louis XIV’s Versailles at Schonbrunn. Although Leopold
only
had control over Bohemia, Austria, and a small part of Hungary, he
still had
considerable authority.
-
Unlike Louis, however, Leopold relied on the Privy
Council, a group of leading nobles, to devise policy and run his
government. After consulting w/them, he would come to a final decision.
Since
Leopold gave the nobles influence in the government w/out first
establishing
control over their lands, the nobles were far more autonomous, so,
though
Leopold had less power, he had more support.
-
Since members of the Austrian court did not necessarily
have to be Austrian, some great foreigners came to power, such as Prince
Eugene (1663 – 1736), who volunteered to serve the Austrians in
the war
w/the Turks. Since he was very talented, he became field marshal and
had a
decisive influence on Hapsburg affairs b/c he transformed their
military
policies from defensive to aggressive. Eugene led the Austrians as they
laid
the foundations for a new empire of Austria-Hungary.
-
Charles VI (r. 1711 – 1740) à was
Leopold’s successor, whose major problem was that he had no male heir.
In 1713
he drafted the Pragmatic Sanction, which stated that all
Hapsburg lands
would pass intact to the heir regardless of who it was. He forced all
the major
powers to sign the PS.
-
Maria Theresa à was Charles’ daughter,
who was heir to the throne in 1740.
MT was in a difficult position, for not only had Charles had left her
w/an
empty treasury, a poorly trained army and an ineffective bureaucracy,
but she
also faced a rebellion by the Czech nobles in Bohemia, and the
Hungarian nobles
were ready to follow suit. So, MT went around to the nobles and
appealed to
them as a damsel in distress. Though she was also forced to
promise the
Hungarians autonomy (w/in empire), the plan still worked wonders. But
MT also
faced other nations, who didn’t respect the PS.
-
The War of Austrian Succession (1740 – 1748) à The French
(to help Bavaria claim the Hapsburg throne), Spain (hoped to win back
control
of Austria’s Italian possessions), and Prussia (took Silesia) gang up
on
Austria. Only England supports Austria (BOP), but b/c of MT’s brilliant
tactics, Austria was able to fight to a stalemate and only gave up
Silesia.
-
Maria Theresa’s State Building Policies à MT was a
moralistic and pious woman who was still a very brilliant ruler. She
believed
in the divine mission of the Hapsburgs, and was ready to defend her
country.
First, she reformed the church by forbidding the founding of
new
monasteries (they were wasteful) and abolishing the clergy’s exemptions
from
taxes! Next, she established a new bureaucracy in Vienna by
appointing
new local officials and reorganizing the central ministries. The new
bureaucracy helped her collect taxes. Lastly, she improved the
military
and its training.
*Absolutism
in Prussia under the Hohenzollerns*
-
In Brandenburg-Prussia, state building was once again made
possible through an alliance between the ruler and the nobles. The
nobility saw
that they could get serfs and consolidate their power on their lands,
and the
elector saw that he could build a strong state. The nobles created very
efficient, profitable estates, and were known as Junkers.
-
Frederick William (r. 1648 – 1688) à a.k.a. the
Great Elector. Realizing that other states were swarming over his
possessions
at will, he built a good army, which he used to impose order and to
gain
territory (w/out actually using the army, just through intimidation).
In
domestic policy, FW got rid of the Diet of Brandenburg (it actually got
rid of
itself as it gave FW the power to raise taxes w/out its consent in
1653),
established the War Chest, which financed the army and collect
government
revenue, and placed the implementation of policies in the hands of war
commissars. FW quickly intimidated his only sources of resistance, the
cities,
w/the army, and established his control.
-
Frederick III (r. 1688 – 1713) à unlike his
father, he enjoyed court society and made Berlin into a cultural center
with a
lively court and an Academy of Sciences. He also effectively gained
Prussian
independence by asking Leopold to make him a king in exchange for his
army (for
war of Spanish succession). After gaining independence, Frederick
changed his
name to Frederick I.
-
Frederick William I (r. 1713 – 1740) à was a
Spartan ruler who disdained court society and concentrated on the army.
He
built up the army (38,000 à 83,000
men) by instituting a form of conscription. He took great care of the
army and
drilled it incessantly. As a result, he had a fantastic army that he
could use
to intimidate other powers (he actually never fought wars w/it). On the
domestic side, FW created the General Directory of Finance, War and
Domains,
which took over in 1723 all government functions except justice,
education and
religion. FW made education compulsory, but did not really enforce the
rules.
-
Frederick II (r. 1740 – 1786) à a.k.a.
Frederick the Great, he was trained for kingship by his father and had
a fierce
sense of duty. He realized only absolute rule could bring results, so
he used
his absolute power to reach objectives. Immediately, he was able to
establish
religious toleration and judicial reform, but his main goal, security,
was more
difficult to accomplish. To gain security, Frederick knew that he had
to
acquire new, stronger borders, and he began the process of gaining
territory in
1740 when he attacked the Hapsburg’s province of Silesia, which
the
Hapsburgs couldn’t defend. In the War of Austrian Succession that
followed, Frederick was able to keep Silesia.
*Absolutism
in Spain under Hapsburgs/Bourbons*
-
After Philip IV the throne went to Charles II,
a sickly man incapable of having children. Spain had a relatively weak
monarchy, for the nobles controlled the regime, and Spain’s dominions
had been
reduced by the war of Spanish succession (Netherlands + Italy à Austria).
-
After the war of Spanish Succession, however, the Bourbons
gained control of the crown, and they ended the traditional
independence of
Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia and created a united Spain. The Bourbons
also
established the office of the intendant in Spain, which helped curb the
nobles.
-
Count Pedro de Campomanes à liberal
reformer in Spain during the Bourbon rule that, among other things,
expelled
the Jesuits b/c he felt they were too powerful and opposed to reform.
*Absolutism
in Russia under Peter the Great*
-
Peter (the Great Westernizer) was born in 1672, and, when
he was three, his father Tsar Alexis (Romanov) died and his
half-brother
from an earlier marriage (from Miloslavsky family à old
believers in the Russian Orthodox Church) took over, called Fedor.
After Fedor
died, there was the question of succession – was it to be Ivan (dumb,
older
son) or Peter (brilliant, younger son)?
-
So, Sophie (Peter’s brilliant half-sister) organized the Streltsy,
a group of conservative soldiers w/nothing to do, and removes Peter and
his
mother (from Naryshkin family à
westernized) sending them to Preobrazhusky (place filled
w/foreigners)
where Peter learns Western ways.
-
In 1689, Peter goes back to Moscow and overthrows the
government of Ivan (in name, but really it is Sophie) and becomes a
co-ruler
w/Ivan.
-
Peter’s Crash Course in Westernization à beginning
in 1689 Peter gives Russia a crash course in Western ways. He sent
Russians to
the West to study, brought foreigners into Russia, forced men to shave
(against
Old Believer rules, symbol of modernization), adopted Western court
rituals and
founded an Academy of Sciences.
-
In 1697, he went to the West himself undercover. Peter was
a giant, and he was also VERY intelligent, and he learned about Western
ways
from the bottom up (shipbuilding, metallurgy, dentistry). When he
returned, he
set up many factories w/serf labor.
-
Peter’s Administration à in ruling,
Peter pretty much ignored Duma (advisory council) and
concentrated on
his bureaucracy. He organized his administration into several
departments each
of which either had a specialized function or took care of a region. He
totally
subdued the nobles, and used coercion to make them listen to him (do
this or else!).
-
Russian Society à Peter made a very clear
dividing line between peasants (had
to pay poll tax, military conscription, forced public work) and
nobility
(status in which was now based on level in bureaucracy and not family).
Result
was more controlled social order + more uniformity.
-
Though Peter was very intelligent, he was also very
barbaric, w/bad temper, and drank SO much! Hates religion, hates
Streltsy, and
really hates Old Believers. When the Patriarch (Pope for Russian
Orthodox
Church) dies, he simply does not replace him, and simply appoints a
council
called the Synod to run church (he can control Synod). Also, he
makes a
mock religion.
-
On way back from Europe, Peter meets Augustus the
Strong, a Polish king, and they become best friends, and decide to
declare
war on Sweden – they think “easy target” since the Swedish king just
died and
there is a 12-year-old on the throne. Peter wants ports.
-
Charles XII à Swedish king MILITARY
GENIUS! Obsessed w/war, very
brilliant, great physical courage, very willful, upright moral man,
Lutheran,
determined to fight to death if attacked, but will not attack if not
provoked.
-
The Great Northern War à Charles
crushes Denmark, then scares Polish away from Riga (they were besieging
it) and
totally beat Russians, who were besieging Narva. So, by 1700, Charles
has
really won, but he still wants revenge, and chooses (big mistake) to go
after
Augustus first (b/c Augustus didn’t declare war, which is sneaky and he
thinks
Russians are pathetic). For 7 yrs Charles chases after Augustus and
finally
puts him in jail. Now Charles attacks Peter, but now Peter is ready.
Charles
takes 35,000 men and invades Russia, and Russians use Scorched
Earth Policy
(retreat and burn everything) so in INCREDIBLY harsh Russian winter of
1707-1708 the Swedes freeze. So, in 1709 at Poltava the
Russians win a
crushing victory and gain Baltic provinces as Window à West.
*The
United Provinces*
-
The UP’s were moving towards absolutism when William
III had the office of Stadholder (during the wars against Louis
XIV), but
the Estates General soon reasserted themselves and ended the wars.
Then,
William sought the English crown, but only w/the approval of the
Estates and he
had to leave the representative assemblies for the two countries
separate.
-
When William died w/out hier, Antonius Heinsius
continued his policies, but the government was really controlled by the
Estates
General. But the UP’s soon began to decline, for their trading power
and naval
supremacy was surpassed by England.
-
Dutch Society à in the UP’s, social
distinctions were less prominent and
social mobility was easier. Also, instead of ancient families of
nobility, the
UP’s were filled with merchants and mayors – they were the most
bourgeoisie
state.
*Sweden*
-
In Sweden, the nobles emerged from a long struggle vs. the
monarchy as the dominant force. During the reign of Charles XI this
was
not a problem as Charles stayed out of Europe’s wars and was able to
conserve
his resources and not rely on the nobility.
-
His successor, Charles XII (little genius kid) who
r. 1697 – 1718, fought Poland and invaded Russia (maybe he wasn’t such
a genius
after all) where he got his little butt kicked. Then, his neighbors
began
taking over his lands, and the nobles took advantage of his absence to
reassert
their power.
-
So, Queen Ulrika was forced to accept a
constitution that gave the Riksdag (like Parliament) control over the
country
and Stockholm became an elegant capital w/out many big political
aspirations.
*Poland*
-
Poland was the strongest contrast to the French society,
for it was so chaotic and not unified that it ceased to exist as a
state in the
late 18th century. This chaos was a result of the complete dominance of
the
nobility, which didn’t allow a centralized government to form.
Though
there were some brilliant kings who still fought in wars (when all
nobles saw a
threat they would unite and form an army under king), they could
exercise power
once wars were over (since kings were elected).
-
The crown, then, had no bureaucracy or funding, so Poland
still resembled a feudal kingdom.
*England*
-
England was the model for a nonabsolutist regime. Though Charles
II was able to summon and dissolve Parliament, make appointments in
the
bureaucracy, and had to sign all the laws, he no longer had the Star
Chamber,
he couldn’t arrest Parliament leaders, and he couldn’t add seats in the
Commons. In effect, he also could no longer use dispensations
or raise $
w/out Parliament.
-
Now, the gentry (wealthy local leaders w/out titles of
nobility – who the textbook is obsessed with) had control of
the
government through Parliament (not through the monarch other
countries).
-
James II à successor of Charles II
who was a total moron (bull in the
china shop). After a struggle for the succession, which he won, James
immediately announced his support for Catholics (dumb move), and began
to
antagonize Parliament (dumb move again). So, after a series of idiotic
events,
seven leaders of Parliament invited William III to invade, and
he did,
and James II fled.
-
The Glorious Revolution à William
and Mary (daughter of James) became co-monarchs in 1689. William was
able to
accept a limited monarchy, and a Bill of Rights was passed,
which
determined succession, defined Parliament’s powers, and established
civil
rights. An Act of Toleration was passed, which put an end to
religious
persecution, and a Triennial Act was passed, which stated that
Parliament had to meet every three years. William guided England into
an
aggressive foreign policy and greatly expanded the central government.
Unlike
rulers before him, William saw his limits.
-
England had already begun to develop a multi-party system.
One side was the Whigs who opposed royal power and Catholicism.
Their
rivals, the Tories, favored the crown and wished for a
traditional and
ceremonial Anglicanism. The Whigs controlled the government form much
of
William’s ruler, and they supported his war vs. Louis XIV (b/c Catholic
and
harbored James’ supporters). But, in 1700, the Tories won by opposing
the war.
By 1702, they were at war again over the Spanish Succession, and the
Whigs were
in control again. 1710 brought back the Tories, for the English were
sick of
the war, and they persuaded Queen Anne (William’s successor) to
make
peace at Utrecht in 1713. After Anne, George I (Hanover)
took
over, as did the Whigs.
-
England’s Economy à at the same time, England
was
winning big time power in the navy and in the colonies, and it
surpassed
France. A notable achievement was the making of the Bank of England
in 1694.
The bank could raise $ for government and keep it for people at
favorable
interest – first government bonds. London is now the financial capital
of the
world. But, most Englishmen were untouched by the boom, and the
peasants still
lived @ crappy conditions in village or city.
-
English State Building à the
process of state-building continued during the Hanover time, and the
bureaucracy grew as a result of the wars. Luckily, in England, the
upper
classes paid taxes too, and so they also supported the state building,
not just
the poor people (like France).
-
Since the 1st two Hanover kings (George I and
George II) couldn’t speak English well, Sir Robert Walpole pretty
much
ran things. His major accomplishment was his good handling of the South
Sea
Bubble Crash in 1720, a financial crash similar to the failure of
John
Law’s scheme in France. Walpole kept England at peace and is often seen
as the
1st prime minister. Walpole’s peaceful policies pleased large
landlords
but angered merchants (feared growth of French commerce) who found
leadership
in William Pitt, who wanted to get rid of France sea influence
(England’s destiny).
*Diplomacy
and Warfare*
-
During the 17th century international relations became
more impersonal and based on rational thought and less based on
relationships
between kings. Gradually dynastic influences gave way to the concept of
the
state. Leaders tried to shape their policies on reasons of state – i.e.
security.
-
One principle at work was the Balance of Power (BOP)
– all powers agreed that it was best not to be dominated by one state.
The goal
was to keep balance, and diplomats were not always honest and were
often
deceitful in attaining their goals.
-
In the armies and navies, the size, organization and skill
grew. So, there was less brutality. The idea of an unconditional
surrender was
unheard of, and most battles took place for a specific purpose. Another
limit
of the scale of war was the constantly shifting alliances and distrust,
and the
weak communications between allies and between a king and his troops.
-
The Seven Years War (1756 – 1763) à began w/a
realignment of diplomatic alliances. Now, the antagonism between France
and
England and the rivalry between Prussia and Austria was taking over.
So,
Austria had a diplomatic revolution and made an alliance
w/France and
Russia against Prussia. Prussia tried to find allies, so it sought
England at
the Convention of Westminster, insulting France. England joined
Prussia,
but still, Prussia was almost demolished. Luckily for them, at the last
minute
the ruler of Russia goes and dies! A complete MORON who loves Frederick
takes
over, and, just as Russian troops are about to get rid of Prussia, he
turns
them back (what a loser!). Then, France and England work out their
difficulties.
Finally, at the Peace of Hubertusburg (what a name) Prussia
gets Silesia
and Austria gets Saxony back.
*Demographic
Change*
-
Prior to the eighteenth century, the levels of populations
seemed to flow in cyclical, or wave-like patterns, depending on natural
phenomena such as crop failures, plagues, etc.
-
Around 1730, a new era in Europe’s demography began.
During the 18th century (which is considered, demographically, to begin
in
1730), Europe’s population skyrocketed, jumping from 120 to 190
million.
Prussia, Sweden, Spain, France, and especially England experienced
tremendous
population increases during this period. After this time, the cyclic
behavior
of the populations stopped, and Europe’s population simply continued to
increase.
-
The rapid population growth was, according to historians,
caused by a decline in mortality rates (as opposed to an increase in
birthrates) in all the countries except for England. The decline in
mortality
rates occurred b/c Europe began to enjoy a more stable and better food
supply
(due to improvement in avg. climate, opening of more farmland, and
improvement
in transportation systems). Disease was still a major problem, but, on
the
whole, mortality rates declined.
*Economic
Growth*
-
During the 18th century, overall wealth also increased,
although the growth was not consistent. Still, the overall trend was a
positive
one. In the first decades of the century, prices remained stable, due
to the
economic consequences of the War of the Spanish Succession. Significant
growth
began around 1730 and continued until 1815. This period was
characterized by
gradual price inflation (which reflected growing demands for goods from
a
growing population). This gradual price inflation stimulated the
economy, and,
although there were some problems, the economy generally grew.
-
The growth, however, did not affect all sectors of
society in the same way. Though the gradual increase in prices was
good for
landlords, employers, merchants, and landed peasants, it was very bad
for the
poor, landless peasants, who could barely afford to live.
-
Protoindustrialization à is the
economic development that occurred just prior to the rise of the
factory system
and may have led to it. Protoindustrialization, a.k.a. the putting
out
system, was a system in which merchants distributed raw materials
to
peasants’ households, who would process it, and then would pick it up
and sell
it. Protoindustrialization led to increased manufacturing and
population growth
in rural areas. Additionally, it strengthened marketing networks,
helped
merchants get more $ (which could be re-invested in production), helped
the
peasants make $ (increasing their demand for goods), and allowed
peasants to
familiarize themselves w/industrial processes. Though it didn’t lead to
technological improvement, it helped economic growth.
*Changes
in Industry*
-
Though, during the 18th century, most industries remained
the same, dramatic change was beginning to occur, especially in the
manufacturing of cotton cloth. The changes in industry were meant to
increase
the productivity of labor through new technologies. This replacement of
workers
with new tools and machines, which is known as factor substitution,
eventually led to the factory.
-
Increases in performance (which is measured by the
output per individual) in industry always depend on the structure
(characteristics that support industry – economy, politics, etc.) of
the
society. Before Europeans could change the format of industry, they had
to face
major obstacles and make changes that affected the very structure of
European
society.
-
Europeans faced many difficulties as they attempted to
change the structure of the economy, such as:
1.
Small Market Size à since European countries
were cut
off from one another for both physical and political reasons, merchants
were
forced to deal with very limited markets. This slowed the growth of
specialized
manufacturing and limited the mobility of capital and labor.
2.
Skewed Distribution of
Wealth à since the
aristocracy used most of the income, merchants would cater to their
desires and
make small quantities of luxury goods, as opposed to lots of cheap
goods that
would be accessible to the public. This screwed up supply and demand.
3.
Property Rights/Privileges
à these
traditional institutions worked against innovation, as rents and tolls
often
sucked up capital that would otherwise be available to both would-be
consumers
(peasants) and the entrepreneurs (merchants).
4.
Guild/Government
Regulations à were huge
problems for the merchants. As the guild regulations established a
standard,
traditional procedure for industry, which was not be changed, they made
innovation exceedingly difficult. Government restrictions on economic
activity
and licensing of monopolies only made it more difficult for merchants.
5.
Cultural Attitudes à as many Europeans,
especially the
nobles, still regarded $ as dirty and simply wanted to have their
titles, going
into business was discouraged.
*Laissez-Faire
Economics*
-
Many Europeans began to question and criticize the
barriers that prevented further industrialization and innovation. They
called
for less control of the economy.
-
Adam Smith à a Scottish philosopher
who epitomized the concerns and
desires of the age, and wrote An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes
of the
Wealth of Nations (1776). Smith believed that $ was not actually
wealth,
but only showed it, and that real wealth consisted of the added value
of
manufactured items produced by invested capital. Most importantly,
however, he
stated that economic progress required that each individual be
allowed to
pursue his/her self-interest freely w/out restrictions for this
would lead
to economic growth. Natural divisions of labor and specialization, he
stated,
should be encouraged. This philosophy became known as laissez-faire
economics,
which means that people should be allowed to pursue their own economic
interests. Smith also introduced the concept of the invisible hand
that
stated that if all individuals follow their own self-interest, it would
be for
the economic good of everyone, since everyone will do what they do
best.
-
Laissez-faire economics really caught on, especially in
England, and in 1786 France and Britain signed a free-trade treaty.
Guilds were
growing weaker, and in 1791, the French got rid of them. In the 1790s,
the
English also began to pass laws against them, and the merchants gained
freedom.
*England
Begins to Industrialize*
-
England was the first nation to develop a social structure
supportive of innovation and economic growth. So, why was it England?
This is
b/c of many advantages, such as:
1.
Geography à England was close to the
sea,
which allowed trade w/foreign nations and colonies. Also, England had
two great
resources essential to industry, iron and coal, as well as a lot of
good,
productive farmlands.
2.
Existing Capital to Invest
à the
English began with a store of capital from the colonies, which led to
the
creation of a banking and investing system – the Bank of England – in
1694. The
bank took responsibility of England’s public dept, sold shares to the
public,
and met the interest payments for shareholders. This helped stabilize
the
markets.
3.
Free Trade à the English had markets
in their colonies, the other
European powers (free trade agreement w/ France in 1786) and the
Spanish
colonies b/c of the Treaty of Utrecht.
4.
Labor Supply à slavery, cheap labor
(peasants) due to the Enclosure Acts,
which drove the peasants out of the communal farmlands and made them
look for
work.
5.
Friendly Political
Environment à since the
gentry were in control of the government (since they had Parliament)
they could
pass laws favorable to the merchants.
6.
Navy à need I say more?
*Cotton
Begins Industrialization*
-
Since England had developed a social structure supportive
of industrialization, all it needed was a take off industry, or
an
industry that would begin a pattern of industrialization all the others
would
follow. In England’s case, this industry was cotton manufacturing.
-
Due to the slave labor in the plantations, there was a
very large supply of raw cotton. There was also a very high demand for
the
durable, cheap cotton goods. However, the putting-out system had
reached its
limits in productions, so merchants were ready to take the next step
towards
industrialization.
-
Richard Arkwright à inventor of the water
frame,
which was able to twist fibers into thread using waterpower. Before
him, though
weavers could make cloth quickly from yarn, production was slowed down
b/c the
yard couldn’t be made quickly enough. Arkwright shifted the balance the
other
way. Arkwright also made the very first factories.
-
James Watt à inventor of the steam
engine. Arkwright asked Watt to use
steam engines to drive his spinning machines, and the first factories
were
created.
-
Edmund Cartwright à inventor of a
power-driven loom.
Though the opposition of handloom weavers and technical flaws made the
loom not
really become available until the 19th century, once it became
available, both
spinning and weaving could go incredibly fast.
-
The cotton industry was revolutionized by the 19th
century, for goods could be made incredibly fast, and merchants could
house all
their workers in factories and watch them work. After
industrialization, the
price of cotton fell tremendously, and it became available to many
poorer
people.
*Changes
in Agriculture*
-
In England, many peasants were able to leave the country
and go to the city, where they found work as factory laborers, because
of the
new agricultural techniques, which caused an increase in efficiency and
productivity.
If it hadn’t been for these changes, the peasants could not have left.
-
Convertible Husbandry à instead of
letting land lie unused every second or third year (to prevent it from
become
infertile) agricultural innovators planted fields w/turnips (which
could also
provide feed for livestock, which could make fertilizer) to help it
regain
fertility. If they encountered other problems, they would experiment
w/other
crops that would hopefully fix the problems.
-
Charles Townshend à innovator who proved the
value of
planting turnips instead of resting land.
-
Jethro Tull à noble who was into
agricultural innovation.
-
In addition to convertible husbandry, innovators
experimented with selective breeding of animals.
-
Enclosure Movement à throughout Europe, all
towns
shared communal lands, which were divided into small plots. This made
it very
difficult to change agricultural techniques, since the village as a
whole had
to agree to a certain technique. But, in England, Parliament was able
to (in
response to the petitioning of large landowners) enclose all the land
in a
village, even against the will of the village itself. Though enclosure
was
difficult and expensive, it was worth it, for it ended up generating
high
profits. In the end, the communal field system was practically
eradicated in
England, leading to the domination of rural society by great landlords
and
their tenant farmers. Enclosure also forced many peasants to leave for
the
cities, where they could then find work.
-
On the continent, however, things were very different,
for, in Eastern Europe, nobles completely controlled the lives of their
serfs,
who spent their time in unpaid labor for their noble lord. In Western
Europe,
though there was no serfdom, most peasants lived under a system called seigneurialism,
in which the peasants lived under a local lord and owed him certain
obligations. Since, throughout the continent, peasants were barely
surviving,
they had little time to worry about efficiency (change was too risky to
afford). So change came very slowly, especially in Eastern Europe.
*Eighteenth-Century
Colonial Empires*
-
After 1715, the three original imperial powers began to
decline. Portugal retired from active competition (but kept Brazil),
the Dutch
could only hope to protect their existing lands, and the Spanish grew
weaker,
thought they still tried to keep their monopoly over trade.
-
So, the English and the French became the new colonial
powers. The British and the French expanded their control in the West
Indies,
West Africa, North America, and India/Asia (where they established
trading
empires). Though the English and the French had different
administrative
techniques for their colonies (English didn’t directly control the
colonies as
much as the French did) both countries relied on mercantilist
techniques. So,
the powers attempted to keep a trading monopoly with their colonies.
They did
so using their naval powers.
-
Colonial trade provided new products, stimulated the
economy and trade (remember Triangular Trade), and was based on
slavery, which
decimated Africa.
-
The intense competition between the French and English
soon led to fights throughout their empires. Fighting broke out in
Canada/North
America, the Ohio Valley (since the French began establishing
strongholds in
the wilderness, the British feared that westward expansion would be cut
off).
The French gained the allegiance of the American Indians (as they were
not
settlers, the Indians felt that their presence would be better for them
than
the English).
-
The Great War for Empire à after
years of hostilities, an official war broke out in 1756. This war,
which was
known as the Seven Years’ War in Europe, was known as the French and
Indian war
in North America and the Great War for Empire throughout. As the
British (led
by William Pitt) had control of the seas, they were able to cut
off
supplies from France and win the war in 1759.
-
The Treaty of Paris à ended the war and was
favorable
for England, though, in exchange for peace, the English gave back some
of the
French islands they had taken. But the English got Canada.
-
The British in India à the British entered India
and
gained control gradually, first through the British East India Company
and
later on directly through the English government itself (after Sepoy
mutiny).
The British made a class loyal to them by turning the landlords into a
class of
nobility and giving them control over their lands. The British also
educated an
Indian bureaucracy trained in their ways. Many people were drawn to
India,
mainly to make $, but some to “help civilize” the country.
-
On the whole, the colonies greatly stimulated the economy,
and also led to increased competition. However, not all groups were
helped by
the growth of the eighteenth century, for the peasants and slaves, who
were the
backbone of society, never saw the fruits of their labor.
*The
Definition of the Enlightenment*
-
The Enlightenment was a period of time in which many
intellectuals, who were called philosophs, began to question
the
traditions of society and to look at the universe in a scientific,
critical
light.
-
During the Enlightenment, all the trademark aspects of
European society were exposed to criticism and analysis through reason.
No
institution was spared, for even the church itself was attacked by the
cynical
philosophs. Though the Enlightenment began as a movement that only
reached the
intellectual elite of society, its repercussions would eventually reach
and
have a big impact on society as a whole.
*The
Beliefs of the Philosophs*
- The philosophs, a group of intellectuals who supported the ideals of the Enlightenment, stood for a series of beliefs, which they stood for, regardless of the cost. These ideas included:
1.
Reason à the universe can be
explained through reason, as can all
human institutions. The philosophs thought that reason could be applied
to
everything, and that it could be used to correct the problems in
society.
2.
Skepticism à the philosophs believed
that everything should be open to
questioning and criticism, even religion. They disliked dogma,
superstition,
and blind faith.
3.
Toleration à both religious and
intellectual. They felt that all ideas
were equally valid, and that people should have the freedom to express
themselves and their ideas.
4.
Freedom à that is, intellectual
freedom, an idea closely linked to
toleration. They felt that people should have free speech, press, and
freedom
of religion. They felt that each person should have the opportunity to
reason
things out for themselves.
5.
Equality à based on Locke’s Tabula
Raza – all people are equal.
6.
Education à again, based on Locke.
They believed that education could
eventually lead to a perfect society, a paradise of reason and
toleration.
7.
Optimism à very optimistic, believed
in science bringing progress.
8.
Enlightened Despotism à for many
kings, enlightened despotism (“I am ruling b/c I can be a servant of
the state
and bring the enlightenment to my people”) replaced divine right
monarchy and
other justifications for ruling.
*The
Famous Philosophs*
-
Voltaire à our favorite! Voltaire is
often regarded as the leading
figure of the Enlightenment. A talented writer, Voltaire stood for many
of the
ideals of the period. First of all, he greatly admired science and
helped to
popularize it. In 1738, he wrote Elements of the Philosophy of
Newton,
which attempted to make Newton’s discoveries understandable. Voltaire
greatly
admired the English, for he felt their society had allowed greats like
Locke,
Bacon and Newton to rise, and in 1734 he wrote the Philosophical
Letters on
the English, which celebrated English toleration. Also, Voltaire
absolutely
hated religion (actually he didn’t hate religion per se, but he really
hated
intolerance) and he wrote The Philosophical Dictionary in
1764, which
stated that organized religion bred intolerance and superstition.
Voltaire was
a deist, and felt religion should be a private matter. Throughout his
life,
Voltaire faced persecution and censorship, and as a result, he was a
dedicated
advocator of intellectual and religious freedom. Voltaire was a
brilliant
satirical writer (Candide) and literary critic who poked fun at
every
element of society (which is why all his books were banned).
-
Diderot à most famous for his Encyclopedia,
Diderot also wrote
a series of novels, plays, math theorems, and works on religion and
morality.
His most original works examined the role of passion in human
personality and
in morality. Diderot often felt that his contemporaries overemphasized
reason
over passion. He also sometimes criticized religion, and ended up as an
atheist. But his most important work was the Encyclopedia,
which
classified all human knowledge from the most common to the most
complex. The
aim of the book was to “change the general way of thinking.” The book
treated
religion w/artful satire, analyzing it like any other topic. Science
was the
core of the book, and scientific techniques and discoveries were
presented in
it. Economically, the Encyclopedia supported the Physiocratic view
against
trade restrictions. The Encyclopedia was banned in many places, but it
was
still distributed, and had a great impact on the intellectuals of
Europe.
-
Jean d’Alembert à famous French
mathematician.
-
Baron de Montesquieu à wrote The Spirit of
the Laws
a book that described an ideal system of government using checks and
balances.
He believed that societies and political institutions could be studied
scientifically, and that a balanced government would lead to success.
-
David Hume à he was the empiricism who
made that stupid argument about
the tree falling in the forest. He hated dogma, and I mean really hated
it. He
went around proving how everybody was wrong. He was an atheist and he
didn’t
believe in any general knowledge, so who knows what he did believe in.
Anyhow,
he wrote Inquiry into Human Nature that criticized
Christianity.
-
Adam Smith à that economist dude. Not
that important. He only came up
with an entire new philosophy on economics but that isn’t part of this
chapter
so look at the other outline!
-
Immanuel Kant à a brilliant philosopher,
he stated that Hume woke him from
his “dogmatic slumber” and believed that reality and perception were
two
different things. However, he believed that so long as it is organized
by
certain concepts, like cause and effect, science is still valid.
-
Cesare Beccaria à was an economist and
penal reformer who wrote On Crimes
and Punishments, which argued for human rights and humanitarianism.
-
Edward Gibbon à historian who criticized
Christianity and held it
responsible for the fall of the Roman Empire in The Decline and
Fall of the
Roman Empire.
*The
Elite Culture of the Enlightenment*
-
During the Enlightenment, many new forms of elite
culture developed. These developments had hardly any effect on the
majority
of the people, but the elite culture, united by French as a common
language,
bound together into a cosmopolitan world.
-
First of all, the elite began to travel around
Europe. They looked at the cultural centers and cities, as well as the
ancient
monuments of antiquity. Cities were being spruced up during this time
with the
additions of amenities (like streetlights and public transportation)
and two
important new ideas, coffeehouses (where people could eat and talk) and
shop
windows (sparked commerce).
-
A so-called republic of letters began to develop
(popularized by Pierre Bayle, who like religious toleration), in which
journals
and newspapers circulated among the elite. Though the republic was
limited to
the educated, all classes and backgrounds could join in. The elite also
met in salons
(philosophical party houses of the elite, very snobby and stylish)
and academies
both of which helped spread ideas and unite people. There, people
could
dispute their ideas and come up w/new ones.
-
Also, during this time, publishing increased tremendously
and people began to read more. Traveling libraries were developed, as
were
journals and, most importantly, newspapers. There were new employment
opportunities in bookselling and publishing, as well as the smuggling
of
so-called bad books, which ranged from Voltaire to pornography
(i.e.
anything that was banned).
*Art,
Literature, and Music*
-
Art of the Enlightenment à the art of
the Enlightenment consisted of two competing styles, Rococo and
Neoclassicism.
Rococo was the art of the nobility, meaningless, w/out content, but
very
pretty, using bright, swirling colors, like Rubenism. Famous
Rococo
painters were Francois Boucher and Fragonard.
Neoclassicism, on
the other hand, favored line over color, and was all about drama,
tension,
emotion, content, and an imitation ancient style. The philosophs loved
the NC,
for they favored themes that the philosophs liked. Famous painter was Jacques
Louis David.
-
Literature of the Enlightenment à this is
where the modern novel was first developed, by Samuel Richardson
and Henry
Fielding, both in England. The novel emerged as a new form of
writing in
which a story was told and characters were presented in a realistic
social
context filled with everyday problems. Another writer was Fanny
Burney.
Satire was also perfected during the Enlightenment, by brilliant
writers like Jonathan
Swift, and, naturally, good ol’ Voltaire. Also, during this
time,
romantic poetry was born. Before, poetry followed strict rules and was
not very
emotional or anything, but in the Enlightenment writers like William
Wordsworth and Friedrich von Schiller made it all mushy.
Poetry came
to be a signature part of the new style, Romanticism. Johann von
Goethe was
a romantic poet who came to embody the entire period and whose
masterpiece was
called Faust.
-
Music of the Enlightenment à music
really changed, and the symphony developed into what it is today.
Pretty much,
this was the work of Beethoven, Mozart and Hayden.
After
them, music also became much more passionate and was full of expression
and emotion.
*Popular
Culture during the Enlightenment*
-
Popular culture was pretty much totally separate from the
elite culture, and was not really that affected by it at all. At this
level
culture was still public recreation and oral tradition.
-
There was, however, some popular literature meant to be
read aloud in the community. This consisted of religious material,
almanacs,
and literature for fun (stories). Mainly, popular writing actually
fostered
submissiveness, not rebellion, for it had a fatalistic acceptance of
the status
quo.
-
But the most important part of popular culture was the
oral tradition, which consisted of the folktales and songs passed from
generation to generation. These tales expressed the hardships and goals
of the
time, with themes like struggles to survive and magical happenings.
-
Though literacy rose a little, in rural areas it was still
very low. Education was scarce, for few parents could allow their
children to
go to school while they were needed in the fields. Many of the elites,
like
Voltaire, did not believe that the masses should be educated, but even
when the
government tried to encourage education (Prussia, Austria) it did not
really
have a big result. Anyway, even when they went to school, the goals of
elementary schooling were simply to instill religion and morality, show
the
value of hard work, and promote deference to superiors, not really to
learn
anything.
-
Lastly, popular culture included festivals and taverns
(the salons for normal people) where common people could enjoy
themselves and
relax. Sports also became important during this time, and people began
to
attend sporting events more.
*The
Origins of the Revolution*
-
The Enlightenment provided the ideology for the
Revolution. For decades the philosophs questioned accepted political
and
religious beliefs and advocated for freedom, liberty and reason.
Although they
neither predicted nor pushed for a revolution, the philosophs wished to
make
people aware that the traditional ways were not always best.
-
Also, prior to the Revolution, several sensational
lawsuits about the scandalous doings of high aristocrats occurred, and
when the
information about the trials got out to the reading public, it made the
aristocracy and the monarchy appear to be ridiculous despots.
-
The French government was undoubtedly corrupt and
ineffective. Louis XVI was not suited to be an absolute monarch (he was
stupid)
and his queen, Marie Antoinette, was hated through the land for her
lack of
sympathy with the people.
-
Although this did not directly lead to Revolution, the
most French people were unhappy and oppressed, and did not get enough
to eat.
This was not directly attributed to the system of government, and the
peasants
weren’t really involved with the Revolution, but the popular discontent
did
contribute to sparking the flames of Revolution among those who noted
the
injustice in French society.
-
Long-term economic difficulties made it necessary for the
king to try to tax the nobility, an act that pretty much set in motion
the
entire deal.
*The
Prelude to the Revolution (1774 – 1789)*
-
So, when Louis XVI took the throne in 1774, the monarchy
was in a pretty bad shape economically.
- Turgot (finance minister) tried to make reforms to
fix the situation
(like removing government restrictions on commerce, cutting down court
expenses, and replacing the obligation of peasants to work on royal
roads with
a small tax on all landholders) but this made him unpopular with the
nobles.
-
So dumb Louis kicked Turgot out and replaced him with Necker
who avoided new taxes, which made him popular, but took out huge
loans
instead, which was bad for the economy. After a while things were so
screwed up
that the new finance guy, Calonne, rightly stated that the
monarchy was
on the verge of bankruptcy. Calonne came up w/new taxes and proposed to
convene
provincial assemblies. To support his plan, he called an Assembly
of
Notables but they didn’t end up supporting him! Instead (gasp) they
denounced the court spending and wanted to audit the accounts.
-
Naturally Louis got rid of Calonne and appointed Archbishop
Brienne (one of the notables) in his place. Brienne submitted
Calonne’s
ideas to the Parlements, but they rejected them. Then they demanded
that Louis
convene the Estates General. Louis responded by attempting to send the
Parlement into exile, but was forced to back down.
-
So, Louis recalled the Parlements and Necker and agreed to
convene the EG in 1789…
*The
Estates General Meet*
-
As the word spread that the EG were going to meet, the
liberal ideology began to take shape. People against tradition (they
didn’t
needed to be lower class, necessarily) came to be known as patriots.
-
The first big issue was the method of voting for the EG.
The Third Estate, representing 95% of population, asked to be doubled
in size –
the king said OK. But as the old method of voting (by order) made the
upper
chambers outweigh the Third Estate regardless of numbers, the Third
Estate felt
ripped off (how stupid do you think we are?) and asked for the voting
to be
conducted by head.
-
Before the EG, the king invited the citizens to elect
delegates to assemblies. All male taxpayers could vote for electors,
who, in
turn, chose reps for the Third Estate of the EG. Also, he asked
citizens to
write grievance petitions – cahiers. Most cahiers dealt with local
issues, and
gave no hint of the Revolution to come. Only some, from Paris, talked
about
natural rights and all that stuff. Still, the cahiers and local
elections
helped make citizens aware of politics.
*The
National Assembly (1789 – 1791)*
-
May 5th, 1789 à the EG finally met, for
the first time since 1614. But the
king only spoke generally and didn’t clear up the voting mess.
-
June 17th, 1789 à the Third Estate had
enough and proclaimed itself the National
Assembly. A few days later, most of the clergy joined. The king
decided to
support the dumb nobles and locked the Third Estate out of its meeting
hall.
-
Tennis Court Oath à on June 20th, the
Revolutionaries
went to a tennis court and swore that they wouldn’t separate until they
had
given France a constitution.
-
The king responded by promising equality in taxation,
civil liberties, and regular meetings of the EG but voting would be by
order.
Then, he ordered the estates to go to their individual meeting halls,
but the
TE didn’t go. Finally, he recognized the NA and (trying to act like it
was all
his idea) told all the estates to join it. But, he secretly was
ordering 20,000
royal troops to the Paris region.
-
At the same time as this political stuff, the ordinary
citizens were getting mad over food shortages. When they heard rumors
of the
royal troops, they feared an aristocratic plot to overthrow the NA.
And, when
the king got rid of Necker (who was popular) on July 11 it was the last
straw.
-
July 14th, 1789 à fearing
counter-revolution Parisian crowds attacked the
Bastille, the 20,000 troops joined (on Rev side), and the
Revolutionaries won.
At the same time, royal officials in Paris were ousted and were
replaced w/a
Revolutionary municipality, and a citizens’ militia was formed.
-
The NA was saved, but the hungry peasants were still
hungry and consequently still angry. Starvation and rumors (that nobles
were
going to destroy the harvest) caused The Great Fear in which
the peasants
attacked nobles and revolted.
-
August 4th, 1789 à in response, the deputies
of the
clergy and nobility gave up their ancient privileges. In one night,
feudalism
and seigneurialism were abolished for good!
-
August 26th, 1789 à NA writes The
Declaration of
the Rights of Man and the Citizen as the constitution will take a
long time
to finish. The Declaration established natural rights like freedom of
expression, religion, etc. It all comes from Locke and from Rousseau (a
little).
-
Civil Constitution of the Clergy à #1 mistake
for Revolutionaries. In 1790, they passed this law that forced clergy
to become
state employees and take oaths of loyalty to state. 50% clergy obeyed,
other
50% didn’t, and the pope condemned the action, so many religious people
were
alienated.
-
Constitution of 1791 à finally, in 1791, the
constitution was finished. It established a limited monarchy w/a clear
separation of powers. There was a unicameral legislature elected by
indirect
voting. Every adult male w/minimal taxpaying requirements could vote,
w/a
higher qualification needed to serve public office.
*The
Legislative Assembly (1791 – 1792)*
-
After the constitution was finished, the NA gave way to
the Legislative Assembly. B/c of the Self Denying Ordinance,
no
NA members could be in the LA.
-
Just as the first LA is about to go into effect, the king
escapes! In his unsuccessful Flight to Varennes he tries to
escape, but
is captured. LA decides to keep him anyway, and they go on as if
nothing had
happened even though everything is messed up.
-
Then, the LA makes the dumb decision to go to war
w/Austria and Prussia b/c of the Declaration of Pillnitz (which
wasn’t
intended as serious anyway). The Girondins feel this will somehow unite
the
nation, the Royalists hope that they lose (king goes back), and
Jacobins want
to lose then win.
-
August 10th, 1792 à then, b/c of the Brunswick
Manifesto the Parisian militants decided to storm the royal palace
at the
Tulieries. They drove the king from the throne, the LA declared him
suspended,
and then half the LA escaped as well. Now, without the king, the LA was
also
illegitimate.
*The
Radical Phase (1792 – 1794)*
-
So, a new government had to be established, as the
constitutional monarchy, w/out a monarch, had lost its legitimacy.
Temporarily,
a Paris Commune or city government was created. But this was
not enough
to maintain order, and in September, hysteria spread by the radical
journalists
resulted in the September Massacres, in which popular tribunals
summarily executed thousands of prisoners, who were feared to be
counter-revolutionaries.
-
The hysteria began to fade when the French won at the Battle
of Valmy on September 20th. Then, France was declared a Republic,
and a
National Convention met for the first time.
-
January 21st, 1793 à Louis XVI was guillotined
after
lengthy deliberations.
-
Now, the Convention was being threatened from many
different sides (see debate) – including internal rebellions, foreign
invasions, economic crisis, factionalism, popular pressure, etc. So,
they
decided to purge the Girondins and establish a program for public
safety.
-
Constitution of 1793 à although this
constitution was
never put into effect because of the military crisis, in addition to
confirming
the individual rights laid out in the last constitution (plus the
rights of
public assistance, education, and even of rebellion to resist
oppression), it
provided for a legislature elected by the people (men only though) that
would
also elect the executive.
-
The Jacobins swept aside the new constitution, declaring
the government “revolutionary until the peace” and instituting the Reign
of
Terror. A twelve-man committee, the Committee for Public Safety,
was
in charge, and the main leaders of the Committee were Robespierre,
Danton,
and the ultra radical Hébert.
-
During the ROT, the French were fighting the foreign wars,
and, soon enough, with the strict discipline of the ROT, they began to
win.
-
But, finally, the ROT culminated in the execution of its
own leaders – Danton and Robespierre executed Hébert,
Robespierre executed
Danton, and then Robespierre himself was overthrown.
*The
Thermidorian Reaction (1794 – 1795) and The Directory
(1795 – 1799)*
-
After the fall of Robespierre, the revolutionary
committees that had led the ROT were destroyed, the Paris Jacobin Club
was
closed, and the Convention offered an amnesty to the remaining
Girondins. The
term Thermidorian Reaction refers to the return of conservatism
after
the ultra-radical phase in the FR and is now applied to any such
pattern in
other revolutions.
-
The anti-Jacobin sentiment grew so strong, in fact, that a
White Terror erupted against anyone connected with the Jacobins.
The
social austerity of the old calendar was back, the fancy titles, and
all that
stuff made their return.
-
The last revolutionary uprising occurred in 1795, when the
sans-culottes launched a poorly organized revolt (calling for “bread
and the
constitution of 1793”) and, after two days of street fighting, were
overwhelmed
by the government.
- In 1795, a new
constitution was drafted. It proclaimed a
general amnesty and set up a five man executive committee known as the
Directory. It also had a two-house legislature. The Directory attempted
to stay
on the moderate side of everything, and it became incredibly corrupt!
It had to
overthrow itself after the first general election because a royalist
majority
won, and things only got worse. By 1799 any semblance of legitimacy was
gone,
making way for Napoleon…
*The
Definition of Romanticism*
-
Romanticism was a major movement in the early nineteenth
century. Although it was more an attitude towards life than it was a
philosophy, it did have some defining characteristics.
-
Romanticism was almost a counterpoint to the ideals of the
Enlightenment, which were then associated with liberalism and the
middle class.
-
Romanticism could coexist w/other political philosophies,
for example nationalism or socialism.
-
Actually, conservatives and radicals both drew on romantic
philosophy, for conservatives claimed that stability was only possible
through
tradition and respect of customs while radicals claimed that a new era
required
the shattering of old institutions just as artistic change required new
creativity.
-
Romanticism was also an artistic movement.
*Romanticism
(Rousseau and French Revolution) vs. Liberalism
(Enlightenment)*
-
Romanticism was a movement that idealized the countryside,
liberalism thrived in the cities.
-
Romanticism emphasized emotion, the heart, and poetry
(often illogical and emotional) while liberalism emphasized reason, the
mind,
and prose (logical and unemotional).
-
Romanticism stressed intuition, and the concept of genius
(often misunderstood) while liberalism stressed reason and scholarship
(you
must study and work to improve yourself).
-
Romanticism viewed nature as untamable, irrational, and
out of control. They felt that nature controlled humans, not visa
versa.
Liberalism felt nature could be controlled, and, most importantly,
understood
through mathematical laws – it stressed progress.
-
Romanticism stressed the uniqueness of the individual
(sometime nations nationalists) while liberalism stressed the fact that
humans
control own destiny, that perfection can be reached through education,
progress
and science and that there are universal human laws.
-
Romanticism idealized the Middle Ages (knights in shining
armor) while liberalism despised it.
*Romantic
Philosophy and Literature*
-
Although romantic thought flourished with the revival of
religion, the increased interest in history and rising nationalism, it
was
mainly philosophical.
-
Romantic thinkers wrote about metaphysics, aesthetics, the
philosophy of nature, and even (in Germany and Scandinavia) a romantic
philosophy of science.
-
Romantics tended to express themselves through poetry,
aphorisms, and autobiographical accounts.
-
Friedrich Schiegel à was a very influential
romantic
thinker from Germany.
-
Samuel Taylor Coleridge à was an
English romantic poet who wrote the Rime of the Ancient Mariner,
a tale
of guilt, redemption, and the supernatural.
-
William Wordsworth à another romantic poet
whose poems
contrasted the beauty of nature with urban corruption and denounced the
materialism of his age.
-
In general, novelists and dramatists began to set their
tales in the past, favor vivid description and attempt to describe the
larger
picture of human existence (like Shakespeare and Cervantes).
*Romantic
Art and Music*
-
In art, the romantic painters began to emphasize color
over line, scenes of nature (especially wild nature), exotic scenes,
movement,
action, dark backgrounds, turmoil, and an appeal to emotion.
-
The romantic style was almost the opposite of the last
great style, neoclassicism.
-
Romantic portraits (which were out anyhow) were blurry and
tried to show inner personality.
-
Big guys were Delacroix (French painter who did Greece
Expiring and Liberty Leading the People), Goya (Spanish
painter) and Turner (English painter who did The Slave Ship).
-
At the same time a competing school of painting, realism,
emphasized ordinary, common people and scenes from everyday life.
-
Neoclassicism was not completely gone either, for
Delacroix’s artistic enemy was Ingres (a student of david who
emphasized
detail, crisp focus and blended neoclassicism with romantic influence).
-
In music romantic composers appealed directly to the
heart, stressing melodies and using freer harmonies. Big romantic
composers
were Schubert and Schumann.
*Political
Ideologies*
-
Almost all the “isms” of the nineteenth century (Romanticism,
Liberalism, Nationalism, Socialism, Conservatism, and Radicalism) came
from
either the Enlightenment or the French Revolution (or as a reaction to
the
French Revolutions).
-
Conservatism à conservatives tended to
justify the status quo, defend tradition
and hierarchy, and stress the limitations of human understanding.
Conservatism
arose mainly from Edmund Burke, and Englishman who stated that
society
exists through a continuity of the traditions that have developed over
the
years. Although Burke allowed for gradual change in theory, he mainly
supported
established institutions. Other conservatives, Joseph de Maistre and
Louis
de Bonald stated that society, in order to preserve itself, had to
keep
close control on dangerous ideas of reform.
-
Liberalism à political liberalism,
which originated with Locke and
Enlightenment, was associated with ideas of social progress, economic
development and the middle class. Liberals hoped to achieve a free
society
governed by a constitution that valued individual rights. John
Stuart Mill was
the most important liberal spokesman of the nineteenth century – he
supported
freedom of thought, universal suffrage and collective action by
workers.
-
Economic Liberalism à although many liberals
were also
economic liberals, the two groups were not necessarily equivalent.
Economic
liberals always supported laissez-faire. David Ricardo, an
Englishman
who wrote the Principle of Political Economy and Taxation (1817),
extended Smith’s ideology. He stated that a product’s value results
from the
labor required to make it, and emphasized labor saving as the source of
profit.
Also, he said that economic laws governed prices, such as the iron
law of
wages (which applied the law of supply and demand to labor).
-
Utilitarianism à the call for social
reform led to utilitarianism, which
stressed the role of the state in society. One influential utilitarian
was Jeremy
Benthan, and Englishman who dismissed the doctrine of natural
rights as a
meaningless abstraction and, instead, proposed that utility should
guide public
policy. With good being that which give the most people pleasure and
the bad
being than which gives the most people pain, Benthan stated that
self-interest
could also guide public policy.
-
Socialism à socialist despised the
competitive spirit of capitalism and
advocated a society in which people could live harmoniously and could
be truly
free. The early socialists – Saint-Simon, Fourier, and Owen
–
were late called utopian socialists by Marx b/c they attempted
to found
ideal communities in which everyone cooperated for the public benefit.
*The
Structure of Society*
-
By the beginning of the nineteenth century, the original
social pyramid structure of society was being transformed into
different, more
fluid, classes – and social relationships were becoming matters of
contact
between individuals. The classes were as follows:
1.
Aristocracy à although the aristocrats
did lost much of their influence,
they remained a potent force throughout Europe. The aristocracy
continued to control
most of the wealth of the country and still dominated the
administration and
the military. The aristocrats held on to more power in the south and
east,
though, for, there, they in effect had control over the peasant masses.
2.
Peasants à most Europeans were
peasants. The peasants felt the effects
of change as agriculture became more commercial (profits increased) and
technology changed, but the big change for most peasants was the
emancipation
of the peasants from feudal obligations, which encouraged peasants to
enter the
commercial market. But, on the other hand, the decline of local
industries
(putting-out system) made the peasants even more dependent on small
plots of
land. In general, peasants stuck by tradition, although they could also
become major
political forces in some cases.
3.
Workers à a new class, the
industrial
workers lived dependent on their employers and often made barely enough
to keep
alive. They often lived in dirty slums, with special restrictions on
their
rights, etc. Workers were clearly an emerging political force in
society, one
the upper classes (rightly) feared. But, although there were attempts
to make
organized labor movements, for the most part, the vast majority of the
working
class remained defenseless without the skills to organize well.
4.
Artisans/Skilled Workers à the most
independent workers, the artisans continued to live by a hierarchy of
masters
and apprentices. They did benefit from industrialization, and, unlike
the
factory workers, did have the organization and education to organize
effectively to improve conditions.
5.
Middle Classà the most confident and
assertive class, the middle class
ranged from the great bankers to the petit bourgeoisie (clerks,
shopkeepers,
etc.) and was held together by shared ideals and common interests 97
all were
opposed to special privileges and saw themselves as the beneficiaries
of
careers open to talent. Essentially an urban class, they liked to see
themselves as self-made. They were associated with the liberal ideology
of the
time, and pushed for moderation.
-
During this time, the population also increased (due to
fewer diseases, increased food supply and a lower of the age at which
people
married) and cities grew greatly.
-
This in turn led to terrible conditions in the cities, and
efforts to improve them through charities and government laws
concerning public
welfare.
-
Charity was mainly conducted by the middle class and the
very religious, and mostly by women.
Although
the charities helped a few, they were not
sufficient, and government intervention was required to fix the
situation. By
mid-century, housing and sanitary codes regulated most cities.
-
Later, governments also began to regulate child labor and
stop vagrancy. Education became a matter of national policy as well,
and most
countries established compulsory public schooling.
*The
Spread of Liberal Government*
-
As liberal social programs spread throughout Europe,
England became the model for many aspiring liberal nations. But England
itself
had passed through a time of reform and change.
-
Between 1688 and 1832 there was no reform at all in
England b/c the English were afraid reform might open the gates for a
revolution like in France.
-
By the late eighteenth century England desperately needed
reform, but would-be reformers like Tom
Paine,
John Wilkes, Price and Priestly were not permitted to
reform.
- England had an archaic
system of government: only 500
people were elected to the House of Commons through the Burrows (which
were
totally corrupt – “pocket burrows”), there was total misrepresentation
(new
cities like Manchester had no reps) and it was all in all really unfair.
-
Finally, in 1832 the Reform Bill was passed, which
extended the franchise from 500,000 to 800,000 votes (which allowed
upper MC to
vote), and redistricted (more proportional representation). This was a
big deal
b/c it signaled the beginning of the end for the gentry 97 now the
middle class
was taking over and gaining control of the government.
-
After 1832 new reforms such as the Factory Act (limiting
hours of child labor) and the Poor Law were passed, and finally a law
granting
all resident taxpayers the right to vote in municipal elections.
-
Still, more reforms were pushed for by the masses. One big
issue was the Corn Laws (tariff on agricultural goods), which the
landowners
liked (can raise prices, more $) but middle class and working class
despised
(food prices up). So middle and working classes joined against gentry.
In 1846
the laws were repealed (a final proof of the switch in power to the
middle class).
The Test Act was also repealed around this time.
-
The radicals in England, known as the Charterists,
wanted universal male suffrage, annual elections, secret ballots, and
salaries
for parliament members. But this movement, unlike the one against the
Corn
Laws, ended up in failure.
*The
Revolutions of 1830*
-
In 1830, revolution swept across Europe, beginning with
the abdication of Charles X in France, which sparked off minor revolts
in
central Italy, Spain, Portugal, some German states, and Poland. But
Austria and
Russia once again crushed most of the revolutions.
-
France à of course it started with
France. First, Charles X didn’t
like the elections, so he passed the July Ordinances (which cancelled
elections, upped censorship, and called for new elections), which
resulted in
the people taking to the streets in revolution, Charles running away,
and
Lafayette bringing Louis Philippe from Orleans as the new king. The new
reign,
known as the July Monarchy, emphasized moderation – the regime began
w/a new
constitution presented as a contract that guaranteed individual rights,
etc.
The July Monarchy attempted to identify w/the middle class, and Louis
called
himself the citizen king. But the monarchy didn’t please anyone b/c it
attempted to please everyone, so, naturally, nobody was satisfied.
Anyhow,
during this time Guizot (a moderate liberal who spoke of liberty and
progress
but did nothing) skillfully dominated the government.
-
Belgium à the Belgians (Catholics)
followed the French revolted
against the Dutch Protestants. They established a liberal
constitutional
monarchy and became a prosperous small country.
-
Spain à in Spain, the monarchy
supported the liberals. In 1833,
however, the monarchy was threatened by a conservative uprising (the
Carlists).
So, to win support more support from the liberals, the monarchy granted
a
constitution in 1834.
*The
Revolutions of 1848*
-
In 1848, liberal revolutions broke out throughout Europe.
Although, at first, they appeared to be spectacularly successful, in
the end,
all the revolutions failed.
-
In general, revolutions occurred where governments were
distrusted and where the fear and resentment fed by rising food prices
and
unemployment found focus in political demands.
-
In the end, the revolutions failed b/c the revolutionaries
found themselves divided, and also, as Seaman states, because the
original
governments still had the power and will to survive.
-
Sometimes 1848 is referred to as “the turning point at
which modern history failed to turn” because it seemed as though the
revolutionaries were only so close to success.
*Revolution
in France*
-
Naturally, it all started in France (where else?) b/c of a
small issue about suffrage. When the government refused to widen
suffrage, the
parliamentary opposition launched a protest movement that staged large
banquets
across the country.
-
The government (aware of its own unpopularity b/c by
trying to be in the center, they didn’t please anybody) banned the
banquet
scheduled for Paris in late February 1848, but some deputies said they
would
attend anyway, sparking a popular rebellion – barricades formed, the
whole
deal.
-
Louis Philippe responded by reviewing his National Guard,
they refused to cheer him, LP realized he had no support and abdicated
in favor
of his grandson and left for England.
-
Instead of listing to LP, of course, two rival newspapers
chose a provisional government of men, who appeared a the Hotel de
Ville and
declared France a republic. Led by Alphonse de Lamartine, an
admired
romantic poet, the new government was dominated by moderates who at
first
cooperated with the more radical members. They agreed on universal male
suffrage, and on the citizen’s right to work, and they established a
commission
to hold public hearings on labor problems.
-
But the new regime didn’t want to go overboard – it
rejected intervention on behalf of other revolutions, didn’t use the
red flag,
and added new taxes. Relations w/the church were great, nearly 85% of
the
people voted, moderate republicans won, and all seemed well…
-
The workers, however, were not satisfied and agitated for
a social program and pinned their hopes on the program of national
workshops
that had been established (although they were imaged as cooperatives,
they were
really temporary relief programs). But the program seemed stupid to the
moderates, who disbanded the workshops in June (bad move).
-
Now the workers were really ticked off, and they responded
by building barricades. For three days they fought viciously against
the
republic’s troops (led by General Cavaignac) but were crushed
in the
bloody time known as the June Days. Now, with almost
dictatorial powers,
Cavaignac restricted the press, suppressed the radicals, and instituted
severe
discipline on the workers. Although Cavaignac remained a republican and
the
assembly still wrote its constitution, something was definitely off.
-
The June Days represented the fatal split between the two
revolutionary groups:
1.
Middle class à wanted
moderate goals, like equality of taxation, careers open to talent,
representative government (but only w/middle class voting b/c voters
had to
have stake in society and education), freedom of speech, press – goals
of
Enlightenment.
2.
Working class à wanted radical goals,
socialism, total equality – new type
of revolution no longer based on Enlightenment but based on socialism
and
working class.
-
So, in December, there was an election and Louis
Napoleon Bonaparte won w/70% of the votes b/c of his name, which
meant
glory and stability. Bonaparte later changed the government to an
empire
w/himself as emperor just like his uncle, the original Napoleon. So,
all in
all, the revolution failed!
*Revolution
in Austria*
-
In the Austrian Empire, the Hungarians had by mid-March
established a free press and a national guard and had abolished feudal
obligations and special privileges. Vienna then reluctantly allowed
Hungary to
levy its own taxes and direct its own army.
-
This Hungarian example caused students in Vienna to demand
representative government for Austria as well – crowds rose up,
Metternich
resigned, censorship was abolished, a constitution was promised, and
universal
male suffrage was given.
-
But, of course, Hungarian autonomy caused similar demands
from the Czechs in Bohemia, the Croatians in Croatia, and the Romanians
in
Transylvania.
-
The original revolutionaries, however, had no tolerance
for other smaller revolutions against the Germans, and it supported the
repressors of those small revolutions.
-
As the smaller revolutions gained power, so did the
Hapsburgs (who asked for the support of the smaller revolutions against
the
first revolutions).
-
The Hapsburgs then used their powerful armies to force all
the revolutionaries into submission.
*Revolution
in Prussia*
-
In the meantime, Frederick William IV of Prussia, upon
hearing about the uprising in Vienna, granted some concessions, relaxed
censorship and called the Landtag (parliament). Fighting broke out
anyway. But
when FW agreed to remove his troops from Berlin and elected a
constitutional
assembly through indirect male suffrage (Berlin), it stopped and it
seemed that
the revolution had won out.
-
Frankfurt Convention à in May, 830 delegates met
at
Frankfurt to discuss German issues. Most favored a monarchial German
state w/a
semi-democratic constitution, but there was a split between the Little
Germans
(wanted Prussia to lead) and Big Germans (wanted Austria to lead).
-
Finally, the Little Germans won out, and in March 1849 the
Prussian king was elected to become the German emperor. But (gasp!) he
refused
– which was actually not surprising since the Prussians were never
liberal,
cared nothing for Germany, and FW didn’t want his power limited – so
the
constitution was never put into effect. Note that by this time the
Landtag in
Prussia had already been dissolved.
-
Also by this time the MC had been spooked by the strength
of the working class rebellions, so they asked for help from the
Prussian king,
he sees they are powerless: that’s all for that revolution!
*Revolution
in Italy*
-
A similar pattern occurred in Italy. At first, the
revolutions were successful, and all the states got constitutions
(Napes,
Tuscany, Piedmont, even Papal States).
-
Lombardy and Venetia had been part of the Hapsburg Empire,
but after the revolution in Vienna, a revolt broke out in Milan against
the
Austrian forces there. In the Five Glorious Days of Milan the
Austrians
were forced to retreat. The Venetian republic was reestablished, and
Piedmont
joined the war against Austria as well. In fact, when it then turned
out that
the pope was not an Italian nationalist (surprise, surprise) and he
escaped,
Rome was even left to be run by a representative assembly.
-
Still, military force was the decisive factor, and Austria
came back and beat Piedmont and its allies, leaving Austria back in
firm
control. Louis Napoleon then restored the pope, Sicily fell to the
kingdom of
Naples in May 1849, and, finally, Venetia was defeated in August 1849
by
Austria.
*The
Effects of Revolution*
-
Although none of the revolutions succeeded, they had a
lasting impact on Europe.
-
The widespread revolutions measured the failures of
restoration, once again demonstrated the power of political ideas, and
uncovered the effects of a generation of social change.
-
Several gains, in fact, did endure: peasants in Prussia
and Austria were emancipated, Piedmont and Prussia kept their new
constitutions, and monarchs learned they needed to watch public
opinion.
-
Liberals learned that they couldn’t depend on the masses
to follow them w/out making demands, they reevaluated their own goals –
perhaps
the old order was better than anarchy, they thought. The, on the other
hand,
saw they couldn’t trust the liberals to help them (they were ripped
off).
-
Everyone realized that revolutions needed power and armies
to back them up but that, nevertheless, nationalism was a powerful new
force in
politics.
*Nationalism*
-
Nationalism’s roots stem from a shared sense of regional
and cultural identity, but the French Revolution and the effects of
Napoleon’s
conquests really caused it to emerge as a force in Europe.
-
Nationalism was also a movement towards modernization, as
countries attempted to industrialize in order to compete with other
nations and
tried to modernize their political systems.
-
As an intellectual movement, nationalism also emphasized
the importance of culture and cultural uniqueness. It rejected the
universality
of the Enlightenment and stated that each country had its own unique
values and
was suited to its own system of government. Many thinkers (like German
nationalists Herder and Gottlieb) urged their
countrymen to
celebrate their cultural values.
-
So, nationalism led to a fascination with folk culture and
national history.
-
As a political movement, the goal of nationalism was
independence: both actual and economic.
-
Note that there were two different types of nationalism:
1.
Liberal à combined w/ideas of the
French Revolution, the liberal
nationalists stated that no country is better than another, but that
each
country has its own unique qualities. All nations deserve to be unified
and led
by people of their own nationality who can provide the nation with a
constitution that is rational, reasonable and just, they said.
2.
Militaristic à associated w/ideas of
social Darwinism and Realpolitik, the
claim of militaristic nationalism is that one’s nation is better, not
just
different. Machiavellian politicians who are out for personal power can
exploit
this form of nationalism.
*The
Crimean War*
-
Nationalist tensions led to the Crimean War, which
originated over competing claims by Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox
monks to
be the guardians of Jerusalem’s holy places.
-
France (supporting the Catholics) pressured the Ottoman
sultan into giving the Catholics special privileges, which caused the
Russians
(supporting the Greek Orthodox) to demand a protectorate over Orthodox
churches
w/in the Ottoman Empire. Then the Russians occupied Wallachia and
Moldavia,
Danubian lands that were under the Ottomans.
-
Concerned by the Russian expansion, the English urged the
sultan to resist the Russian demands. When negotiations broke down,
Britain and
France sent their fleets to the Aegean Sea, and in October 1853 the
sultan
declared war on Russia. When his butt got kicked, Britain and France
joined him
to preserve the balance of power.
-
In the end, England (BOP), France (defend Catholics),
Piedmont (to go to peace conference) and Turkey fight Russia in the
Crimean
area. This war exposed the weakness of Austria and Russia, and showed
how
antiquated their systems were.
-
Congress of Paris à finally, the Turkish side
won and
the powers met at the Congress of Paris, a congress that was
preoccupied with
issues of nationalism. Russia was forced to cede some territory,
surrender its
claims in Turkey and accept a ban on warships in the Black Sea. The big
issue
at the conference had to do w/national claims (who should get the
Danubian
principalities?), an issue which was postponed b/c the Austrians didn’t
want
the obvious solution (an autonomous state) to be put into effect as
they felt
threatened by nationalist interests.
*Italian
Unification*
-
Giuseppe Mazzini à known as “the spirit” of
Italian
Unification, Mazzini was one of the first Italian nationalists. His
form of
nationalism was very romantic and emphasized Italy’s uniqueness and
special
role in Europe. In nationalism, Mazzini saw the expression of natural
communities, the basis for popular democracy and international
brotherhood.
Although Mazzini made many attempts to unify Italy through movements
like Young
Italy and conspiracies and propaganda (etc.), he never succeeded. His
big
chance came in 1848, but, when Austria regained control, Mazzini left.
-
Consequently, the task of unification, surprisingly, came
to the small state of Piedmont, which had fought Austria and emerged
with a
constitutional monarchy led by Victor Emmanuel II.
-
Cavour à was Prime Minister, a
liberal who believed in progress,
tolerance, limited suffrage, and who saw nationalism as an avenue to
modernization. Although Piedmont’s internal strength was his first
concern, he
also wished to make Piedmont the center of Italy’s resurgence, the
Risorgimento.
-
Plombieres Agreement à made by Cavour w/Louis
Napoleon,
the Plombieres Agreement stated that if Piedmont were at war w/Austria
then
France would back them up. If Piedmont won, then there would be land
gains for
both countries. Cavour wanted Venetia and Lombardy out of the deal (but
he
never intended to fully unify Italy), and Napoleon wanted to weaken
Austria,
get Nice and Savoy, and get back at the Austrians (for Congress of
Vienna).
-
They were just looking for a way to start the war when
Austria did some stupid things: it imposed military conscription on
Venetia and
Lombardy (super unpopular), and it sent a declaration of total
disarmament or
war to Piedmont – geez, talk about playing right into their hands.
-
So after two battles at Magenta and Solferino, things are
going well when Napoleon III quits b/c he realizes he is falling into a
trap
(worried about Piedmont getting too strong)!
-
Treaty of Villafranca à is where
Napoleon III pulls out and the Austrian-Sardinian war ends.
-
But now, it is time for Garibaldi who is the
ultimate romantic. He recruits a thousands volunteers, sails down to
Sicily and
attacks the Kingdom of Two Sicily. As he wins battles, his army grows,
and he
is soon ready to take on Papal States (also France then) and Cavour
(b/c
Garibaldi is a republican and Cavour has a monarch). So, in 1860 he
marches to
meet the North and, in order to prevent a civil war, he gives ALL his
conquests
to Cavour and goes home to grow corn!
-
So now Northern Italy (w/exeception of Venetia and Rome)
joins Southern Italy.
-
In 1866, through the Austro-Prussian war, Italy gets
Venetia, and then, in 1870, through the Franco-Prussian war, Italy
sneaks in
and takes Rome. Now Italy is totally unified.
*German
Unification*
-
The process of German Unification began as early as 1834,
when the Zollverein (Prussian led economic union) was formed.
Then in
1848 the Frankfurt Assembly reinforced the concept of a united Germany.
In
1861, Willhelm I mounted the Prussian throne, and in 1862 Bismarck was
appointed PM.
-
Similarities to Italian Unification à events not
planned in advance (contrary to leader’s claims later on),
industrialized north
and rural south, done piece by piece, done using Realpolitik, at first
leaders
didn’t want/expect full unification, and big obstacle in both cases =
Austria.
-
When Willhelm I came to power in 1861, there was a big
issue on military spending: Willhelm wants $, Parliament doesn’t want
more
taxes. So Willhelm appoints Bismarck, who collects taxes regardless
(reminiscent of England w/Charles I). But this time, b/c of the
tradition of
absolutism, the monarch won out and, although Parliament was mad, it
couldn’t
do anything about it.
-
Then, in 1864 there is The Danish War in which
Austria & Prussia fight the Danish. This war originates when Danish
want
traditional German provinces of Schleswig and Holstein. Naturally the
Austrians
and Prussians win, and Austria gets Holstein while Prussia gets
Schleswig at
the Gastein Convention. It has been debated whether or not this
was a
deliberate plan by Bismarck to start war later – but no, b/c in,
Austria made
some exorbitant demands, but Bismarck still didn’t go to war…
-
Then in 1866 the Austro-Prussian (Seven Weeks) War starts.
Bismarck instigates this war by causing trouble in Holstein, the
Prussians kick
Austrian butts b/c Austrians have out of date military technology and
have to
cope with all these nationalist issues.
-
Next in 1870 the Crisis of the Spanish Succession occurs.
The question is the next Spanish emperor (not this again). Bismarck
proposes
Leopold of Hohenzollern (Will’s cousin), the Cortes like it, but France
sure
doesn’t. Willhelm backs down at Ems, but he won’t promise to
never do it
again when Napoleon III asks him to. Concerned, Will sends the Ems
Telegram home
to Bismarck saying what happened, Bismarck changes a few choice words,
releases
it to the press and voila – you have a war!
-
So the Franco-Prussian War is on. France is
favored, but, once again, Prussia totally wipes the floor with the
French. Not
only does Prussia win, but the Prussians even force the French into
unconditional surrender via the Siege of Paris (not very
pretty, people
were eating their dogs and cats). Then, to add insult to injury, the
French pay
a huge indemnity, have to give up Alsace-Lorraine, and must watch
Willhelm get
crowned Emperor of Germany at Versailles! What could be worse?
*Popular
Culture*
-
The thirty years before 1914 have now become known as the Belle
Époque. In this era, many Europeans came to share an urban
life with plenty
of opportunities for entertainment.
-
As new attractions such as music halls became available to
more and more people, traditional games and festivals gradually became
less
important. In sports, many traditional games faded away as cricket,
soccer and
rugby became more popular. Sports games became important parts of mass
culture.
-
People had more time for leisure due to the adoption of
the English week (Sundays and half of Saturdays off), and women also
gained
more opportunities to attend the theater, etc.
-
Since people had more time to read, newspapers increased
in circulation, now giving more space to sensationalistic
human-interest
stories and less attention to dry analysis of the news.
-
There were also more popular novels, and in wealthy
nations, over 50% of the pop. could read/write. But mass schooling was
still
limited to a few years in basic subjects, and few poor could afford
more.
*Women’s
Movements*
-
From the 1860s onwards, women had begun to organize in
behalf of their interests. Several types of women’s movements existed,
including:
1.
Led by middle class women,
most women’s movements were
centered in charitable work and education. Cautious in outlook, they
spoke out
against the social injustices that caused millions of women to be
subjected to
terrible poverty.
2.
By the 1880s, the first
type of movement had led to a more
politically radical one that was less geared towards protecting women
and was
more concerned with equality.
3.
Another movement, led by
the women’s trade unions, was
mainly concerned about the problems of pay and working conditions in
the
factories.
-
Now, most women in industrial countries were engaged in
work for pay, although jobs were still tied to gender. Women were paid
less and
were mainly forced to do dull tasks or service work.
-
Over time, some new jobs spread to women – such as the
jobs of secretaries, office clerks, bookkeepers, and saleswomen in
department
stores.
-
The triumph of women in science, etc. was causing some
change in the attitudes towards women, although women still faced
opposition
from many people who felt their place was in the home. By 1910, some
progress
had been made and most nations had passed laws protecting women workers
and
increasing women’s rights: they could control property, make decisions,
and
participate in civic life.
*The
Arts*
-
In this time, there was a new variety of artistic styles.
-
Naturalists à this school believed that
the artist had to show life
exactly as it was w/careful detail and research. This applied
especially to the
novel – Emile Zola was the master of the school.
-
A common theme for this time was determinism, the
belief that behavior was predetermined through social circumstance and
blood
inheritance (influence of Darwin).
-
Impressionism à during this time the big
new style was impressionism.
Instead of attempting to capture reality, impressionists showed “what
the eye
first sees” by using color, light, and flattening the canvas. The big
guys were
Manet (the Manet Revolution, he was really the first
impressionist), Monet
(yeah, the one who did the paintings of the same pond 100 times), Renoir
(focused on people scenes) and Degas (also focused on
people in
their private moments). The impressionists were into art for arts
sake
and made no political points in their work (unlike romantics).
-
Post Impressionism à took the next step and
was even
less realistic, didn’t even try to show reality at all. The big people
included
Van Gogh (Starry Night, etc.), Paul Gaugin (beginning
of
surrealism), and the Pointillists (one dot at a time, led by Seurat).
-
Abstract Impressionism à really an
early 20th century movement, it was just pretty things, w/no
correlation to
reality – “rhythmical arrangement of line and color” (Henry Matisse).
*Attacks
on Liberal Civilization*
-
It seems that now, finally, liberalism has won out, but it
was still being attacked from many directions during this era,
especially
during the fin de siecle (1870 – 1914).
-
Radicalismà there were several
different types of working class/radical
movements, most of which were socialist, during this time. The
different ones
included:
1.
Marxism à the most common type, as
most socialist parties in Europe
were at least formally Marxist. In 1864, a group of English labor
leaders
called an international conference in London, and Marx decided to
attend. Known
as the First International, the meeting was dominated by Marx
(who
kicked out people he didn’t agree with – for example, the Blanquists).
Marx had a big issue w/the Russian anarchist Mikhail Bakunin,
who
supported nationalism (Marx hated it) and thought Marx was too
authoritarian.
Although the First International died after 1872 (when Bakunin was
expelled),
it helped build a workers movement by spreading Marxism. After this,
most
Marxist parties combined moderate policies w/exciting slogans – they
formed the
Second International in 1889.
2.
Revisionist Socialism à similar to
Marxism except in the fact that they believed that, instead of a
revolution,
the proletariat should take over through the democratization of the
government,
the revisionist socialists gained power in politics.
3.
Trade Unions à trade unions, sometimes
known as Syndicalist Movements,
also gained an avid following. Skilled artisans often led these
movements, but
the greatest threat was posed by the concept of the General Strike
by
the factory workers. The concept of the general strike was proposed by Georges
Sorel (who wrote Reflections on Violence in 1908 and
rejected
bourgeois rationalism in favor of violence to create political
movements).
4.
Anarchism à there were also anarchist
groups, which were illegal and
underground parties specializing in random acts of violence –
terrorism.
Although not all anarchists were bomb throwers (Prince Peter
Kropotkin,
for example, was gentle and compassionate, but his idea of anarcho-communism
didn’t catch on) all anarchists hated established authorities.
-
Conservatism à rightist movements
revived during this time, gaining
support among the aristocrats, rural people, and member of the
lower-middle
class. They defended voting by class, limited suffrage, and attacked
the
shallowness of middle class culture and capitalism. Sometimes the right
used
nationalism and patriotism to gain support.
-
The Church à the Christian religion
greatly attacked the materialism and
selfishness of modern society. Both Protestants and Catholics often
denounced
the injustices of society, but the Catholic Church was especially
hostile
towards liberalism. In 1864, Pope Pius IX issued a declaration
that
described the evils of modern society (it denounced total faith in
reason,
state control, and stated that the pope would not reconcile himself
with
liberalism) and in 1869 the Vatican Council declared that the pope was
infallible when speaking ex cathedra. The battle between church
and
state was still going on during this era, but, as time passed, the
conflict
became outmoded and both sides became more cooperative as states turned
their
attention to the left instead. The church also encouraged charity work
– for
example, in 1891 Pope Leo XIII spoke out against social
injustice and
pushed for change.
-
Philosophy à some philosophers of the
time began to look beyond reason.
They stated that humanity was essentially irrational. For example, Henri
Bergson believed that human understanding arose from intuition,
not reason,
and felt that spontaneity and creativity was key. Friedrich
Nietzsche attacked
everything about his society: equality, democracy, nationalism,
militarism,
etc. and felt that society’s only hope lay in being led by a few ubermench
(supermen).
-
Charles Darwin à Darwin’s discoveries,
which made people appear to be more
like animals and showed that humans were irrational creatures
controlled by
nature, also undermined faith in liberalism, a philosophy that was
based on a
belief in human rationality.
*Common
Domestic Problems*
-
So, although liberalism was under attack in a big way, it
still survived, but not without its share of issues and domestic
problems,
which were dealt w/differently in each country.
-
One issue was suffrage – although the trend had become to
increase suffrage, there was a big debate over women’s suffrage. Also,
each
system had found its own way to constrain democracy.
-
Another was the exact role of the state in areas such as
social welfare (education, housing, public health) and the economy.
Special
interest groups often lobbied for gov’t support, and conflicts often
arose when
the gov’t was faced w/competing interests – does this sound familiar?
Hmm…
-
So, as governments gained responsibilities in social
welfare, transportation, etc. their bureaucracies (surprise, surprise)
grew in
size. Businesses also became more bureaucratic, as did workers unions,
political parties, and professional associations. Though the
large-scale
organizations also had a stabilizing influence, they made all the
conflicts and
social divisions larger scale too.
-
Another issue was national identity: should certain groups
be included in a nation’s identity? This often led to major problems in
which
nations were split apart.
*France’s
Domestic Policies*
-
During Franco-Prussian war, in the four-month Siege of
Paris, a split broke out between the right (which wanted to quit)
and the
left (wanted to fight like in 1792). The left won out, and established
a
radical Paris Commune, which took over the city in 1871. They
held out
as out as long as they could (they ate their dogs and cats), but the
Germans
still won.
-
So, France’s newly elected assembly went to meet at
Versailles and agreed to peace on German terms. Since the assembly
couldn’t
agree on a form of government (I sense a pattern here), it compromised
by
making Adolphe Thiers chief of the “Executive Power”.
-
Now, the Paris Commune people thought they were the
people running the country – and (you guessed it) a civil war breaks
out. It is
the republic national government (led by Thiers) vs. the Paris Commune
(led by Charles
de la Cruz – a Robespierre wannabe who is also known as the
Incorruptible
and also wants the Republic of Virtue – what a copycat).
-
The Germans are happy to sit back and watch the French
kill e/o – haha, they say.
-
May 1871 à the “bloody week”. 25,000
people were killed in street
fighting. Finally, the insurrection was put down and the French Third
Republic
was born (1871 – 1940). Although the people who wanted the republic
were a
minority, since the others are so divided, they won!
-
The Paris Commune became this big Marxist legend of the
Socialist Revolution.
-
The new Third Republic had a Chamber of Deputies (elected
by direct universal male suffrage) a Senate (elected by indirect
suffrage
through local officials) and a president (which was weak). It was a
regime of
compromise. From 1879 to 1899, it was lead by moderate republicans.
-
There were still plenty of problems: in 1889 General
Georges Boulanger actually became more popular than the
politicians using
nat’lism, and the leaders fear a coup, but nothing happened. And in
1894, the
whole Dreyfus Affair occurred (bad for military, monarchists,
and
Church).
-
Still, things pulled together, and from 1900 to WWI the
gov’t was in the hands of firm republicans who purged the army of their
opponents,
attacked the church (separated church and state in 1905) but still
stayed
pretty much moderate. The prime minter from 1906 to 1909 was Georges
Clemenceau.
*Germany’s
Domestic Policies*
-
Until 1890, Bismarck totally dominated German politics.
But then young William II, eager to run the country and exasperated
w/Bismarck’s complex policies, forced his resignation.
-
Bismarck’s policies had allowed the court, army,
bureaucracy and the big businesses to accumulate tremendous amounts of
power.
His successors were faced w/the challenge of holding the system
together w/the
demands of the public and parliament. No easy job. They tried to mimic
his
foreign policy successes (big mistake) and copied him in building up
the army.
There were big issues over enlarging the army in 1887, 1893, 1898 and
1911 –
1913: each time the army got bigger, the government relied more on
nationalism,
and society got more divided.
-
The government also attempted to appeal to the public by
propaganda in the 1890s. The Prussian Junkers and industrialists ran
these
campaigns that supported high tariffs, imperialism and the military and
attacked socialists, Jews and foreigners. They won victories, such as
the Naval
Bill of 1898.
-
The government also extended many social welfare programs:
social security, labor arbitration, regulation of working hours, safety
standards, etc. and built railroads and stuff.
-
Still, the Social Democrats (socialist party) gained a lot
throughout the 1890s and dominated Germany’s labor unions. The SD’s
remained
firm revolutionaries (no revisionism for them) choosing strict Marxism.
The
lines for battle, so to speak, were clearly drawn in German politics.
-
In 1909, the last peacetime chancellor, Theobald von
Bethmann-Hollweg, took office. He tried to placate both the
conservative
court and the more radical parliament. His programs for reform failed.
*Italy’s
Domestic Policies*
-
Italy’s liberal monarchy wanted to modernize while
balancing the budget. But, since the gov’t was totally corrupt and had
very
limited suffrage, it couldn’t win much popular support.
-
In the 1880s and 1890s, the prime minister Francesco
Crispi tried to win popular supported by policies like
anticlericalism, a
trade war w/France and imperialism – but, instead, he angered people
and had to
resort to martial law to end a protest movement among Sicilian peasants.
-
Unrest increased until riots reached revolutionary scale
in Milan in 1898. The gov’t restored order, but it took bloodshed and
repression. Conservatives argued for more oppression, but the Chamber
of
Deputies refused. Under Giovanni Giolitti (prime minister from
1903 to
1914) the gov’t got more popular support through acknowledging the
right to
strike, nationalizing railroads and life insurance, sponsoring public
health and
supporting universal male suffrage.
-
Although there were still conflicts, Italy was
industrializing at a rapid rate, the war against Turkey in 1912 helped
gain
public support, and Italy was pretty much set on a liberal track.
*Russia’s
Domestic Policies*
-
Russia had blocked reform for a generation, and it had
become a totally backwards country. When Alexander III came into power,
he
tried to achieve stability through the Orthodox Church and police
control of
ideology. He game nobles a greater role n local councils (the zemstvos)
and gave governors permission to use martial law to restrict
non-Russian
religions and languages and persecute Jews.
-
Then, when Russia suffered a humiliating defeat at
Japanese hands in the Russo-Japanese war in 1904, the pressure for
reform grew
tremendously. The Social Revolutionaries and the Marxist Social
Democrats were
both gaining strength, and the liberal members of the zemstvos decided
to hold an illegal meeting in which they argued for civil liberties.
-
In 1905 striking workers marched on the Winter Palace in
St. Petersburg to petition for a constitution and labor unions. They
were shot
down by the army on “Bloody Sunday” – which led to agitation so wide
that in
March the tsar promised to call an assembly of notables and announced
reforms
of religious toleration, reduced restrictions on non-Russians and Jews,
and
fewer payments for peasants.
-
This was not enough. Urban strikes, peasant riots, etc.
showed the country demanded a constitution, and in August the tsar said
he
would consult the Imperial Duma.
-
The public wanted even more, and responded w/a wave of
strikes so effective it forced the tsar to issue the October
Manifesto,
which granted a constitution.
-
The people who supported the constitution became known as Octoberists,
more liberal leaders became known as the Cadets (short for
Constitutional Democrats), and, further to the left, some socialists
refused to
compromise and called for another general strike, which was only
partially
successful and whose leaders were soon arrested.
-
The Fundamental Laws announced in May 1906 defined
the new gov’t: the tsar could still veto, name his ministers, command
the
executive, the judiciary, and the army, and the nat’l legislature would
have an
upper house (half of whose members were appointed by the tsar) and the
Duma.
-
Since elections under this system brought the Cadets into
power, Nicholas disbanded the legislature and held new elections, which
turned
out more radical. So, he passed a law favoring the upper classes.
-
Although the new system was somewhat corrupt, it was still
workable and allowed Russia to industrialize. The prime minister from
1906 –
1911, Peter Stolypin, reformed education and administration and
created
full private ownership of land and social insurance.
*Austria-Hungary’s
Domestic Policies*
-
In Austria-Hungary, politics had reached a stalemate, as
the creation of the autonomous regime in Hungary had touched off
conflicts
w/the rest of the empire. Only the conservative instincts of the court,
aristocracy, and the bureaucracy stopped reform, and stopped the
country from
disintegrating through the ABC Paradox (nationalist rebellions).
-
From 1879 – 1893 Count Eduard von Taffe held
office. Although Czechs and Poles supported Taffe, he was forced to
stick to
inaction for fear of alienating his other supporters. In response to
worker’s
agitation, Taffe proposed welfare measures but repressed the socialists
(making
the left and the right mad). After his fall, the gov’t relied more on
support
from the top, since universal male suffrage (introduced in 1907) put
the
Christian Socialist and Social Democrats in the lead.
-
In Hungary, the Magyars kept control through oppression
and corruption of the bureaucracy. They weakened the empire w/their
independent
policies. But, for mutual survival, the leaders of both Austria and
Hungary
stayed away from change and relied on imperial foreign policy to
distract.
*Spain’s
Domestic Policies*
-
From 1854 – 1863, a liberal coalition held power in Spain,
and Spain experienced economic growth and the beginning of
industrialization.
But this growth soon brought new demands, and in 1868, the unpopular
Queen
Isabella II fled and revolution ensued.
-
The revolution was led by political moderates who agreed
on a constitution monarchy w/universal male suffrage, trial by jury and
freedom
of religion and the press. But, they couldn’t find a king, and finally
had to
settle for an Italian prince who gave up after three years. The
republic only
lasted two more years until Isabella’s son was reinstalled as Alfonso
XII.
Little change occurred during his reign, and a parliamentary system
based on
limited suffrage did little to reform the country.
-
Industrialization made everything worse, and, in Cuba, the
gov’t was soon faced w/guerilla war and was forced to withdraw. This
led to
more thought, but not enough, for in 1909 the tensions resulted in a
week of
violence in Barcelona. This was put down, and the moderate regime came
back.
*England’s
Domestic Policies*
-
In England, the domestic issues were resolved through a
two-party system. William Gladstone transformed the Whigs into
the
Liberal Party, and Benjamin Disraeli turned the Tories into the
Conservative Party. Gladstone supported increased suffrage and reform,
and even
sympathized with radicals. Disraeli supported a simper suffrage reform
bill,
which was passed in 1867.
-
The larger electorate provided for in 1867 allowed the
Liberals to dominate for six years. The Liberals reformed education,
the army,
disestablished the Anglican Church of Ireland and restricted the abuses
of
absentee landlords. When the Conservatives returned in 1874, they
expanded the
authority of the state and added social welfare bills. The Liberals
then
continued their support of universal male suffrage, which was passed in
1885.
-
But, when Gladstone agreed to Irish home rule in 1886, his
party split and some Liberals (led by Joseph Chamberlain)
allied w/the
Conservatives, who took over using imperialism.
-
While the Conservatives promoted British power abroad,
they restructured local government by making country councils elective
and
therefore more democratic (1888, 1894) and extended the reforms of the
civil
service (in 1902 they got a national education system w/secondary
schools).
-
But the working class was still dissatisfied, and, in
1900, union representative and intellectuals combined to for the Labour
party,
which was basically a democratic socialist party. The Liberal and the
Labour
parties campaigned for social programs that the Conservatives were
against.
-
In 1906, the Liberals won again, and they established
programs of workers’ compensation, old-age pensions and urban planning.
This
(and the arms race) led David Lloyd George to propose the
“people’s
budget” in 1909, which was rejected by the House of Lords. But the
king, who
threatened to appointed more peers, forced the upper house to consent
to the
budget and a change in the constitution, which prohibited the Lords
from
vetoing money bills or anything that passed three times.
-
The conflict led to an increase in social tension: there
were more strikes and violence, and there was a possibility of the
dreaded
general strike. And, when in 1914 the Commons gave the Irish home rule,
the
Protestants of N. Ireland threatened civil war.
-
But, the outbreak of WWI generated a wave of national
unity, though the peace and prosperity of the Edwardian era (1901 –
1910) was
sacrificed in exchange.
*Foreign
Policy From 1870 to 1890*
-
By 1870, all the major powers that would participate in
WWI were in place. Their foreign policies from 1870 to 1890 (end of
Bismarck’s
rule) would in many ways set the stage for WWI.
-
England à the #1 power in Europe,
by a lot. England had been the
first to industrialize and it was still well ahead (steel production,
paper
use, etc.) until 1890, when Germany began to surpass it. England was
the
biggest imperial power, with India, Canada, and its plans for the Cape à Cairo
railroad. It had the Suez Canal (which was its “lifeline” and it would
protect
at all costs) as well. The English navy was also bigger than all the
others in
the world combined! England’s only concern with Europe was for the balance
of power and nothing more – no peacetime alliances.
-
France à the #3 power in Europe.
After the horrible mess of the
Paris Commune and the Dreyfus affair, the French Third Republic seemed
solidly
established. The main goal for France was to regain control of
Alsace-Lorraine
(the “lost provinces”). Consequently, they had a vendetta against
Germany. In imperialism
they were the second place power with many African States and influence
in
China and Southeast Asia. Also industrialized.
-
Russia à also the #3 power in
Europe. A totally backwards country
that only freed its serfs in 1861, was not industrialized at all (b/c
needed
middle class and trade, which it didn’t have). Russia’s goal was, as
ever, the
WWP (warm water port), which it would need for trade. It wanted to get
it on
the Mediterranean, from Turkey, which would be easily done if not for
England, which
wanted to maintain peace near its lifeline, and kept stopping them.
They could
also get the WWP by encouraging Pan-Slavism and, therefore, causing the
disintegration of Austria-Hungary, but this obviously causes serious
issues
with Austria-Hungary (yea, they had issues).
-
Austria-Hungary à the #5 power in Europe.
They are really, really scared of
one thing: Slavic nationalism, which is being encouraged by Russia (who
they
hate, surprisingly enough). The deal between Austria and Hungary,
incidentally,
is that the Magyar Hungarians and the Austrians are presenting an
allied front
against Slavic nationalism.
-
Germany à the #2 power in Europe at
the middle of the entire mess.
Controlled by Bismarck, Germany developed a huge (and confusing) system
of peacetime
alliances, all based on their fear of a two front war – or that France,
who
hates them, might find an ally.
*Bismarck’s
Alliance System*
-
So it all began with Germany’s well-justified fear of a
two front war – France and somebody else ganged up against Germany. But
who
could the someone else be?
1.
England? – England and France
together
would be a serious problem. Luckily for Bismarck, England does not for
peacetime alliances and won’t interfere unless the BOP is threatened.
So, all
Bismarck has to do is make sure he doesn’t threaten England – so no
colonial
possessions, don’t mess w/lifeline, no navy, etc.
2.
Austria-Hungary à a valid possibility,
especially
as he beat Austria-Hungary in 1870, which humiliated them.
3.
Russia à again, a valid
possibility.
-
So, to prevent the dreaded two front war, Bismarck had to
befriend BOTH A-H and Russia. There was one slight problem: due to the
Pan-Slavism issue, A-H and Russia hated e/o!
-
In 1874, Bismarck formed the Three Emperors League,
an understanding between A-H and Russia.
-
Then another problem began to develop. The Ottoman Empire
(now the sick man of Europe) is in bad shape, and as Turkey controls
the
Balkans, which Russia wants but A-H and England would defend, a war
seems
eminent.
-
War would be very bad for Bismarck, as it would bring the
British onto the continent to defend their lifeline, it would cause a
war
between A-H and Russia, and it would ally France w/England.
-
Russo-Turkish War à the only war where the
winner is
placed first! From 1876 to 1878, Russia wipes the floor with Turkey –
Turkey is
collapsing, everyone is mobilizing (oh crap). So Bismarck takes the
initiative
and quickly calls…
-
The Congress of Berlin à in 1878,
Bismarck presented himself as the honest broker (yea right) and pretty
much ran
the session. He forced Russia to give back practically all its winnings
– or
else it would have to fight with Germany – and sided w/A-H, but now
Russia
feels betrayed and angry, and could possibly join France in a two front
war!
Also, all the little Balkan states were made here.
-
So, in 1879, Bismarck makes the Dual Alliance
w/A-H, which becomes the Triple Alliance in 1881 with the
addition of
Italy. Now his friendship w/A-H is totally confirmed.
-
Then he goes to Russia and asks if Russia wants to bring
back the good old Three Emperors League, and Russia (who
doesn’t know
what to make of it all) says sure, and it is recreated in 1881.
-
In 1887 the TEL falls apart b/c Russia and A-H hate e/o
too much, but Bismarck quickly makes the Reinsurance Treaty with
Russia
(non-aggression pact) to prevent two front war.
-
So it’s all good when Willhelm I has to go and die,
bringing impatient and power-hungry Willhelm II to the throne. Will II
wants
navy, colonies, and “Germany’s day in the sun” and doesn’t want the
complex
alliance system. So in 1890, he fires Bismarck (he never liked the old
guy
anyway)!
*Events
Leading Up to WWI*
-
Franco-Russian Alliance à when the
Reinsurance Treaty came up for renewal in 1890, Will II showed no
desire to
renew it, so Russia knew that the Germans had chosen Austria over them.
Consequently, they formed an alliance w/France in 1894.
-
Entente Cordiale à then in 1904, England
(gasp)
actually made an understanding w/France, their longtime enemies, b/c
Germany
was beginning to threaten them – it was building a navy, competing for
colonies, and being arrogant and obnoxious (Kruger Telegram).
-
Moroccan Crisis #1 à in 1905, the Germans
decided to
test the French/English understanding, and hopefully mess it up, over
an issue
w/Morocco. France wanted special status there, and announced it as
their
protectorate – Germany gets angry, sends ship, and calls a congress.
But at the
congress, everyone but A-H sides w/France, and the F/E alliance only
gets
stronger – so dumb move for G.
-
Triple Entente à which leads to, in 1907,
the Triple Entente, an informal
coalition of France, England and Russia. This comes about b/c after the
Russo-Japanese war in 1907, England no longer feels threatened by
Russia b/c
Russia has no more navy. Now, they can all be friends.
-
Balkan Crisis #1 à a.k.a. the Bosnian
Annexation
Crisis, this one was a biggie. Back in 1878 in the Berlin Congress,
A-H,
which was getting nervous about the Balkan states, was allowed to
occupy
Bosnia. Now, it suddenly decides it wants to keep Bosnia, but it knows
it must
strike a bargain with Russia, which wants its WWP. So in 1908 Russia
and A-H
agree: Russia gets a WWP, and A-H can annex Bosnia w/o Russian
intervention. So
A-H goes ahead and annexes Bosnia while Russia (to the surprise of the
Serbs)
does nothing. Then Russia calls its congress on the WWP, all agree
except
England and Germany, so A-H (figuring it won’t get it anyway if England
and
Germany are against it) says nothing. Russia feels totally ripped off,
and is
out to get Austria too.
-
Moroccan Crisis #2 à now, France wants to
annex
Morocco. Talks seemed to be going well when the Germans sent the
gunboat Panther
to a Moroccan port in 1911 and then asked for all of the French Congo
in
exchange. Although there was an eventual compromise, it heightened
tensions.
-
Tripolitan War à in 1911, Italy declared
war on Turkey to get Tripoli, which
it got easily.
-
Balkan War #1 à seeing Italy’s easy
victory, Bulgaria, Serbia and Greece
declared war on Turkey in 1912 and kicked the Turks butts.
-
Balkan War #2 à in 1913 (now it is a war
per year), Serbia, Greece, Romania
and Turkey went to war against Bulgaria b/c Bulgaria gained too much
land in
the last war.
-
Which leads us to…
*The
July Crisis of 1914*
-
On June 28th, 1914 (another of those landmark
dates), the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to Austria-Hungary’s throne,
was
assassinated by a Serbian terrorist from the Black Hand. A-H was
outraged, and
convinced a strong response was necessary as they believed that the
terrorists
were affiliated w/the Serbian gov’t (think Taliban and Al Queda).
-
So Austria-Hungary asked Germany what they should do, and
on July 5th Germany responded by saying A-H has Germany’s full support
regardless – the “blank check” – essentially saying to go ahead and
kick the
Serbians’ butts.
-
On July 23rd, A-H gave Serbia an incredibly harsh
ultimatum obviously designed to be rejected and start a war and gives
Serbia 48
hours to respond favorably to all the demands. On July 25th, Serbia
responded
by accepting all but 2 of the demands and asking for international
mediation.
-
On July 28th, A-H refused meditation and declared war on
Serbia claiming demands weren’t met.
-
On July 30th, Tsar Nicholas II ordered a full mobilization
against A-H and Germany, so, on August 1st, Germany responded by
declaring war
on Russia and warning France to declare its intentions in 48 hours or
else. By
August 3rd, France’s hours had expired and Germany declared war on it.
-
On August 4th, the Germans asked the Belgians for
permission to use their country to get to France, Belgium refused, and
Germany
invaded, leading to the British declaration of war on Germany the next
day b/c
of its violation of Belgium’s neutrality.
-
So that is why they call it “stumbling into war” – was it
stupidity or what?
*The
Causes of WWI*
-
There have been several different interpretation of what
caused the war, beginning w/the Treaty of Versailles, which
blamed it
all on Germany.
-
Then, in 1924, Sidney Bradshaw Fay and Henry
Elmer Barnes challenged that view and stated that war became
inevitable and
that the blame rested on all the nations equally. Anyhow, they said, it
was
more A-H than Germany, as Germany had tried to hold A-H back but it
became too
late. Britain should have declared its intentions earlier, Serbian
nat’lism
started it, Russia was the key country to mobilize and Germany was the
last to
mobilize – so, they said, it wasn’t all Germany! The long-term causes
(according to them) were: the alliance system, the arms race, economic
rivalry,
imperialism and NATIONALISM. This view was so convincing it became
classic and
led to the Treaty of Versailles not being enforced – as they had said
it was
too harsh.
-
In 1961, the German historian Franz Fischer actually
reopened the question and refuted the now classic view using German
secret
documents as evidence. “Germany willed and coveted the Austro Serbian
war,”
Fischer said. Germany’s motive was: worried about Russia (which was
gaining
power by the second) so knew it had to hit now before it became too
late, its
ambitions for colonies and more territory in Europe, and to distract
the
socialist menace at home.
*The
Course of the War*
-
Okay, pretty much, we don’t need to know this stuff, but
there are a few noteworthy battles. We won’t be asked about the other
ones so
who the heck cares!
-
Generally what happened was that the Germans got close to
Paris, where they were stopped at the Battle of the Marne.
There, both
sides built miles of parallel trenches – and from then on, it was just
stalemate as in battle after battle each side attempted to break
through the
enemies’ lines. At the Battle of Verdun, where the Germans
again tried
to break through, it became a total war of attrition, as no
strategy
seemed to work. The Battle of the Somme was the allied
counterattack, to
no avail.
-
The Eastern front followed a similar pattern of stalemate
– i.e. nothing happened except they kept fighting and people kept
killing e/o –
please, what was the point?
-
The main naval battle, the Battle of Jutland, was
when the Germans tried to break out of the British naval blockade, but
they
failed, and had to resort to submarine warfare, which drew in the US.
-
In the end, it was US involvement that decided the fate of
the war, as things had just become dependent on who could be drawn in
to
provide fresh supplies and men.
*The
Effects of the War*
-
The war strained the resources of each country to the max.
It created national unity, for a time, but it also caused great
hardship.
Supplies were lacking, women went to work in the factories, there was
disruption and dislocation, and Europeans grew thinner and less
fashionable (as
the textbook says).
-
The war contributed greatly to the increased involvement
of the government in society, led to increased propaganda, and also to
women’s
liberation.
-
Many social customs faded out, and society became more
open (at least for a time).
-
There was also a rapid development of new technology.
Overall, however, the economy was greatly hurt by the war, as world
trade had
been totally disrupted.
-
And then, of course, practically a whole generation of
young men in every country had disappeared.
*The
Peace Treaties*
-
Fourteen Points à the list of US war aims,
the Fourteen Points was a very
idealistic treaty that wanted to “make the world safe for democracy” –
it
supported nationalism, democracy, etc. Wilson felt that oppression led
to war,
and that if oppression was stopped, war would be stopped as well.
Wilson
supported the idea of colonies eventually reaching independence, state
lines
being drawn by nationalism, and so on.
-
Paris Peace Conference à in 1919,
all the winners met in Paris (where else?) to determine what the new
Europe
would be like. Among the main players were:
1.
Woodrow Wilson à from the US, Wilson is
truly the
honest broker here: he doesn’t really have any interests except for
promoting
long term peace a la Fourteen Points.
2.
Clemenceau à from France, all he wants
to do is get Germany back for
what they did. In 1870, Clemenceau was the mayor of Paris (which
explains a
lot) so he now wants to enact a Carthaginian peace: just to start, he
is
determined to kill the Kaiser and dismember Germany.
3.
Lloyd George à from England, LG is, as
he said, “stuck between Jesus
Christ and Napoleon” – although he had to promise his country to kill
the
Kaiser and to make Germany pay, he is not as psychotic (I mean
exaggerated) as
Clemenceau.
-
Treaty of Versailles à surprisingly enough, they
actually came up with a treaty! The Rhineland was occupied for 15 years
(or until
the $ was paid) and permanently demilitarized, France got
Alsace-Lorraine (not
even a point of contention), Germany lost all its colonies, they added
the
Polish corridor, Germany had to pay billions of $ in reparations, and
there
was, to add insult to injury, the war guilt clause, which said it was
all
Germany’s fault. At first, Germany refused to sign, but they did after
all.
Also, the TOV established the mandate system.
*Influences
on Twentieth Century Culture*
-
In the twentieth century, small movements in new
directions from prior decades became dominant in many fields.
Psychology,
literature and art probed the irrational and surreal.
-
Sigmund Freud’s discoveries had huge influence and
implications. Freud stated that the mind was divided into the
unconscious, the
subconscious, and the conscious, and that people were driven by the id
(instinctual urges residing in the unconscious), which is controlled by
the ego,
which is told to do so by the superego (conscience imposed by
society).
He also found that all memories were kept, in some from, and that
repression of
memories from the conscious mind led to neuroses. Freud invented psychoanalysis
to cure patients of their neuroses.
-
From Freud’s discoveries, many inferred that greater
candor in society would lead to a happier population (although Freud
himself
did not think so). Carl G. Jung broke from Freud and developed
a theory
of the collective unconscious (a common bond between whole peoples
expressed in
rituals).
*Movements
in Literature*
-
Surrealism à the surrealists applied
Freudian ideas directly and
believed art had to penetrate the subconscious. Both an artistic and
literary
movement, surrealism explored inner thoughts and dreams.
-
Other writers, though not necessarily surrealists,
explored human irrationality. For example: Marcel Proust (who
wrote Remembrance
of Things Past and focused on interior monologue and the expression
of the
narrator’s feelings), Franz Kafka (who wrote descriptions of
twisted
fantasies), James Joyce (who wrote Ulysses, which
told a
day in the life of the average Dubliner on epic proportions) and Virginia
Woolf (who was a political activist and feminist w/A Room of
One’s Own).
-
In general, novelists turned away from the clear,
chronological narratives of the past and focused more on controversial
issues
and the exploration of dreams and fantasies.
*Movements
in Art*
-
In all the arts, the new thing was to shock the audience
by presenting absurd things, etc. The Dadaists were excellent
and this,
and used their bizarre routines to infuriate the proper Paris
bourgeoisie. The Futurists
in Italy were obsessed with speed, and the Fauvres in
France and the
Expressionists in Germany aimed to wildly break conventions.
-
In painting, the Cubists and Expressionists confused
people with their strange designs, often incorporating violence and
amorality.
This scared most people.
*Movements
in Philosophy*
-
The big philosophical work of this time was by Oswald
Spengler and was called the Decline of the West. He treated
civilizations as living organisms and stated that WWI was the beginning
of the
end for Western Civilization. Jose Ortega y Gasset was just as
pessimistic in The Revolt of the Masses, for he stated that the
masses
would use their rising power to destroy civilization’s achievements.
-
In Principia Mathematica, Bertrand Russell and
Alfred Whitehead stated that philosophers should only worry
about things
that were precise and empirically demonstrable. Ludwig Wittgenstein
agreed in his related system of local positivism, and, in Tractatus
Logico-Philosophicus he tried to limit though by insisting on
symbolic
logic. These new analytic philosophers emulated science, and tried to
get rid
of any statements that did not have a precise meaning. Philosophy
became more
specialized.
*Advances
in Science*
-
By this time, science had become incomprehensible to the
average person. It became increasingly specialized, and even though
people
generally knew the implications of the theories, they did not really
understand
them. Many laws were overturned during this time, as well.
-
Albert Michelson and Edward Morley in 1887
started one line of new thinking by challenging the theory that the
universe
was filled w/a substance called ether. Albert Einstein followed
up on
this (and then some) in his Theory of Relativity, which stated
that
space and time were not absolute.
-
Physicists were also finding a new understanding of
matter. In 1895, Willhelm Roentgen discovered x-rays, and two
years
later J.J. Thomson proved that the electron existed.
Researchers like Pierre
and Marie Curie explored radioactivity and further proved
the
divisibility of the atom. Ernest Rutherford followed up on
this by
associating radioactivity w/the breakdown of big atoms.
-
This led to quantum physics, or the attempt to explain why
Newton’s laws didn’t work for subatomic particles. Max Planck challenged
Newton in 1902 by showing energy was emitted in quanta and had many
properties
of matter, and in 1919 Rutherford changed an atom by bombarding it
w/subatomic
particles. But they could find no unified theory to explain the
subatomic
world.
-
Werner Heisenberg then came up with the Uncertainty
Principle, which stated they really couldn’t know anything for
sure. By
this time Newtonian physics (in some cases) and the old conception of
the atom
had been thrown out the window Science became ultra-complicated, and
now there
were no more popularizers like Voltaire to make it understandable to
everyday
people.
-
In biology, advances were made in the study of heredity
and in the isolation of viruses (which led to new drugs like
penicillin). In
sociology, the big guys were Emile Durkheim (who used
statistics to
analyze customs) and Max Weber (the “ideal type”). They both
were
concerned w/the customs that held society together and were concerned
about
what happened when group norms broke down.
*Popular
Culture*
-
There were many new technologies (such as cars, radios,
planes, etc.) and lots of excitement in the 1920s. New and daring
styles of architecture
became popular, as did advertising.
-
The big new thing was the movies. Movies took full
advantage of the trend towards distortion sin time and perspective.
They also
became super popular as well as very profitable. All sorts of people,
from the
rich to the poor, attended the movies, although movies became more
specialized
to each country with the introduction of sound in 1929. Politics was
sometimes
there, too.
*The
Initial Revolution*
-
After 1905, Russia was a constitutional monarchy. But,
because only the upper classes were allowed to vote, the conservatives
pretty
much dominated the Duma and blocked reforms. When the war broke out in
1914,
the Duma was suspended and Tsar Nicholas II went to command the army.
He left
his wife (who was controlled by insane Rasputin) to run the country.
-
Throughout 1916, discontent mounted to an almost
intolerable level. Transportation was poor, production low, war
refugees were
everywhere, there were terrible food shortages – and, to make it worse,
the
peasants (who wanted land) and the workers were already raging mad.
-
So, in March 1917 (called either the March Revolution or
the February Revolution), strikers filled the streets of
Petrograd (St.
Petersburg) and, led by the Soviet of Workers (a groups of workers)
they joined
with the Duma committee and formed a provisional government. Nicholas
II, who
couldn’t count on the army’s support, was forced to abdicate.
-
The provisional government was mainly moderate bourgeoisie
(it was led by Milyukov and the only socialist was Kerensky,
who
was a social revolutionary and part of the Petrograd soviet) and it
quickly
established civil liberties, gave political prisoners amnesty, and
stopped
religious persecution. But, besides supporting the 8-hour-workday and
ordering
the abolition of class privileges, it left the other social issues to
the
constituent assembly it promised to call soon.
-
The revolutionaries were actually highly divided, for
Russia had many revolutionary parties, such as:
1.
Cadets à short for constitutional
democrats, they were the most
moderate of the revolutionaries and aimed for a liberal democracy.
2.
Social Revolutionaries à the SRs
were mainly concerned with the peasants.
3.
Social Democrats à were the Marxists, but
they were
also divided between the Bolsheviks (Lenin’s group) and the Mensheviks.
-
The Bolsheviks (led by Lenin) wanted a hard-core,
ultra-organized revolutionary group to be the vanguard of the
revolution and
they did not want to cooperate w/the Cadets. The Mensheviks wanted a
larger
party of part time revolutionaries and wanted to cooperate w/the Cadets.
*The
November Revolution*
-
While the first revolution occurred in Russia, Lenin, in
exile in Switzerland, was organizing his party and formulating a new
version of
Marxism. Lenin stated that there was not going to be a spontaneous
awakening of
class consciousness (instead, the only result would be “trade union
consciousness” and becoming middle class wannabes) and that an
energetic party
of revolutionaries was needed to divert the proletariat and take them
towards
the real revolution.
-
In April 1917, however, the Germans (who hoped, since
Lenin thought that WWI was an irrelevant civil war between the
capitalists,
that Lenin would disrupt the war effort) let Lenin back into Russia
though a
closed railroad car. He issued the April Theses (a masterpiece
of
propaganda), which supported “Peace, Land, and Bread” and “All Power to
the
Soviets”.
-
Meanwhile, the provisional government was collapsing.
There were disagreements over war policy and strikes. Kerensky became
the
leader, but his gov’t was attacked from left (the Bolsheviks and their
failed
revolution in the July Days) and right (the Kornilov Coup).
Kerensky
still focused on the war, and in his attempt to get just one more great
offensive (it never worked) he lost much public support.
-
Because of the Kornilov Coup, Kerensky asked the left to
help defend the gov’t, so all the Bolsheviks were let out of prison.
They won
control of the Moscow and Petrograd soviets, and Trotsky was elected
president
of the Petrograd soviet.
-
On November 6th, Lenin seized power in Petrograd and
Moscow, and announced to the Congress that the Bolsheviks held power
and were
taking control of the armies. Although Kerensky tried to gain support,
the
armies were not interested in fighting for him.
-
Congress approved a one-party cabinet: the Congress of
Soviets replaced the parliament; they elected a Central Executive
committee,
which advised the cabinet. There was no real elected body – though
elections
were held for the constituent assembly (otherwise it would appear that
the
Bolsheviks were afraid of the results), it was dismissed after one day.
*Communist
Russia*
-
First, the Communists declared that land, livestock, and
farm equipment belonged to the state but could be temporarily held by
peasants.
They also stated that no peasant was to work for hire, and that
committees of
the poor would supervise the allocation of land. There would be
worker’s
committees controlling the factories, and all ranks were abolished.
People’s
tribunals were established as well.
-
In the next few months, everything was nationalized:
railroads, banks, foreign trade, etc. A new secret police, the Cheka
was
established as well.
-
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk à in
February 1918 Russia just stopped fighting, and in March Russia
surrendered to
the harsh Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which forced Russia to surrender
more than
one million square miles of territory to Germany. The communists
tolerated the
harsh terms because they felt that a revolution would soon occur in
Germany as
well.
-
In July, Russia was declared a federation and political
power was given to the local soviets, organized by occupation and
elected by
universal suffrage. The soviets elected delegates, who elected more
delegates,
up until the all-Russia Congress. The Communist party was not
mentioned, but it
really ran the show, for its Central Committee elected the Politburo,
which
shared power with the Council of People’s Commissars (but in reality it
was all
the Politburo).
-
Red/White Civil War à then, from 1918 to 1921,
there
was a brutal civil war of Communists vs. Everyone Else. Since the
troops
weren’t committed to fighting the Bolsheviks, the Red Army won out, but
at
enormous cost (the policy of War Communism, which was stealing
food from
the peasants to feed the cities, caused agriculture to drop to 1/5th of
its
former level). After the civil war, there was the Communist-run Red
Terror.
-
Then, rising discontent caused Lenin to introduce the NEP
(New Economic Policy), which is Bukharin’s pet project. The NEP is
basically a retreat back to capitalism (private enterprise was
encouraged, only
enterprises with 60+ people were state-run, peasants allowed to grow
and sell
their own grain). IT WORKS!
*Stalin’s
Rise to Power*
-
So all is going well until Lenin gets a stroke in 1923.
Now there is a power vacuum in the party, and all five other members of
the
Politburo wonder who will fill it. The candidates are:
1.
Leon Trotsky à commander in chief of the
army, and secretary of state.
2.
Gregory Zinoviev à leader of the Comintern
(spreading the Rev to other countries).
3.
Les Kamenev à chief of staff.
4.
Nikolai Bukharin à chief of propaganda (a
little
more conservative, NEP).
5.
Joseph Stalin à considered by far the
least talented, not a great thinker
or speaker, did nothing during the Revolution or Civil War. So, he is
made the
Secretary of the Party.
-
They see the parallels to the FR, and they are all
wondering who Napoleon will be. Everyone thinks it will be Trotsky who
they
dislike as he joined the party late and is not trusted.
-
So Stalin, Kamenev and Zinoviev form a STOP TROTSKY
movement. They also form a Lenin Cult (a Cult of Personality), which
turns
Lenin into a God of Communism. Trotsky hates this, since he knows Lenin
wasn’t
infallible. But Stalin and co. use the Lenin Cult to prove all the
times that
Trotsky was supposedly wrong (whenever he disagreed with Lenin).
-
On his deathbed, Lenin realizes what Stalin is doing and
writes in his will that Stalin should be expelled. But when they open
the will,
Kamenev and Zinoviev leap to Stalin’s defense and say (believe it or
don’t)
that this one time Lenin made a mistake, and vote to suppress
the will
and win.
-
Meanwhile, several ideological debates continue:
1.
NEP vs. Collectivization à while
Bukharin wants to keep the NEP permanently, Trotsky wants to start
collectivization (instead of small private farms, big state run farms).
Stalin
sides with Bukharin as a pretext to attack Trotsky.
2.
Permanent Revolution vs.
Socialism in One Country à since
Trotsky wants to spread the Revolution throughout Europe, Stalin states
he
wants to focus on Russia.
-
By 1925, Trotsky is forced to step down from the army (he
could have pulled a coup d’etat, but he hated dictatorship, as it was
against
his principles) and is exiled by 1927.
*Russia
Under Stalin*
-
A new term, totalitarianism, was invented to
describe Stalin’s control over Russia (and Hitler’s over Germany,
etc.). Stalin
controlled everything: education, propaganda…
-
In the 1920s he made his enemies look bad in the history
book, and then in the 1950s he wiped them out of the books altogether.
He
assassinated Trotsky in Mexico City to prevent him from telling the
truth about
the oppressive nature of his regime.
-
After eliminating Trotsky Stalin moved against Kamenev and
Zinoviev. He kicked them out of the party and replaced them with loyal
supporters. In 1927, Stalin attacks Bukharin and proposes
collectivization (as
his own idea, of course). Bukharin (finally) gets the idea. Then in
1928,
Stalin proclaims that he is “the Lenin of today” and turns himself into
a
living God of Communism. A new Cult of Personality is born.
-
Collectivization à a.k.a. the First Five
Year Plan
(1928 to 1932). Peasants were forced off their land or whole villages
were
destroyed. Then, they were forced onto state run farms. Although it was
absolutely brutal, it worked! Industry grew tremendously. Still,
agriculture
declined.
-
Then, Stalin began a series of purges after the
assassination of Serge Kirov (a popular Stalinist who was
actually
killed on Stalin’s orders as a pretext and also b/c he was becoming too
popular). He used the NKVD – in a series of show trials he had all the
old
Bolsheviks (anyone who was around at the Revolution) “confess” to
crimes
against the state – Bukharin, Zinoviev, all the army officers, etc.
-
The twentieth century gave rise to several new forms of
government. While in Russia, people turned to Communism during and
following
World War I, in Italy and Germany, people turned to another form of
government
known as Fascism.
-
Like the Communists, the Fascists were a misery party (popular
during times of widespread suffering or economic depression that left
the
mainstream parties looking inadequate). Although the Communists and
Fascists
were sworn enemies, they were actually pretty similar. Or at least that
is how
it turned out when looking at the Soviet regime.
-
Fascists had no exact ideology (there was no Fascist Karl
Marx to write it out) and, unlike Communism, it was not an intellectual
movement (in fact it was anti-intellectual). The Fascists just ripped
off the
ideas of other people, like Nietzsche or Sorel’s Reflections of
Violence and
used them for their own purposes.
-
The Fascists tended to glorify violence, think of the
welfare of the state, and ignore the rights of the individual. Fascists
stressed nationalism and militarism, and the end goal of their regimes
was to
have a dictatorship that embodied the spirit of “the people”. Fervent
love for
the state and not thinking (let propaganda think for you) was
encouraged in
Fascist regimes as well.
*The
Rise of Fascism in Italy*
-
After WWI, Italy was definitely looking for a misery party:
unemployment rates were high, there was a lot of inflation, and there
was talk
of revolution. Peasants were stealing land, and striking workers and
angry
industrialists were struggling for control. The upper classes feared a
Communist rebellion, social issues had not been addressed, and the
peace treaty
had made people mad.
-
During this time the first Fascist movement was born. Led
by Benito Mussolini, the Fascists denounced liberalism using
leftist
rhetoric and denounced Marxism b/c of its lack of nationalistic
sentiment. They
effectively used propaganda and activists (black shirts) to spread
their
message.
-
At first the Fascists were not very successful. In 1921,
during the first elections with universal male suffrage, two new
parties (the Catholic
Popular, which demanded reforms but was based on peasants and
conservatives
and the Socialists, who split off from the Communists) rose to
power.
The Fascists won 35 seats, and were included in the prime minister
Giolitti’s
personal coalition.
-
But instead of just operating by the rules, the Fascists
used their black shirted activists to plant bombs, beat up other
parties,
disrupt meetings, and scare people.
-
Then, when the left wing unions called a general strike in
1922, the Black Shirts started to take over town councils by force. In
October,
they staged a march on Rome. Parliamentary leaders woke up after a
while,
called for martial law, but the King (Victor Emmanuel III) refused.
Mussolini
reached Rome, where he was invited to form a cabinet by the King.
-
So Mussolini became the prime minister, and his party won
a huge victory in the elections of 1924 b/c of his techniques of
intimidation
and fraud. Then he began terrorizing the opposition and shooting their
leaders.
The opposition was unable to respond effectively b/c they were so
divided.
*Italy
Under Mussolini*
-
By 1925 Mussolini had gotten rid of all his opponents and
gained control of the press. He then moved to make his power official
by
passing a series of law that declared the Duce (leader) of Fascism the
head of
state w/the right to govern by decree. Opposition parties were
outlawed,
opponents arrested and the civil services and judiciary branches were
purged of
any people thought too independent.
-
During this time, Mussolini’s immense propaganda machine
created a Cult of Personality. Italians were told to obey the leader
and to
fight for their country, and were filled with nationalistic pride and
confidence. The single-party government reached into every aspect of
Italian
life. Armed with a militant secret police, the Fascist party kept tight
control
on the country and soon won thousands of new supporters.
-
The Fascists didn’t really have a consistent ideology or
policy, but they did establish the Corporate State in Italy. In
the
Corporate State, each sector of production was supposed to be organized
into a
huge corporation. Each corporation was headed by a party member
appointed by
the government, and was to establish the policies for the industry and
wage
scales.
-
By 1926, they were able to outlaw strikes and unions b/c
of the corporate system. They fixed the number of corporations at 22,
and the
Duce was made president of each of them. He also appointed the Council
of
Delegates (who sat in the National Council of Corporations) for each
corporation. Consequently, the corporations never achieved any real
autonomy
and had no power.
-
Italy never became as orderly as Mussolini promised, but
freedom and individual rights were destroyed. Although a quiet
intellectual
opposition was allowed, thousands of people were exiled or killed for
opposing
the government.
-
In economics, the Fascists sought autarchy (a
self-sufficient national economy) and were into industrialization and
technology. The government didn’t mind big business but generally
favored
nationalization. In 1926, they began a big campaign to increase
agricultural
production, which led to a doubling in grain production.
-
The government attempted to keep peasants on the land and
increase the birthrate, but neither campaign was effective. They were,
however,
able to stop the Mafia in Sicily, drain the marshes near Rome, and
build
railroads and superhighways. They used these public works programs to
combat
unemployment, and this (and the benefits of the new things built) gave
people a
sense of security.
-
Mussolini’s biggest achievement was his agreement with the
Vatican, known as the Lateran Agreement (1929). In the
agreement,
Mussolini recognized Vatican City as an independent state, established
religious teaching in public schools, guaranteed that marriage laws
would
conform to Catholic doctrine, promised to restrict the Protestants and
promised
to give the Church money to pay for the damage done during Italian
unification.
The agreement favorably disposed the Church (and many Italian
Catholics)
towards Mussolini.
*Germany
after World War I*
-
After World War I, Germany had a democracy known as the Weimar
Republic. It was headed by a President (w/a 7 year term) who
oversaw the
country but didn’t make day-to-day decisions. The President could call
new
elections at any time. The Chancellor (elected from the majority party
in the
Reichstag) ran the country. The Reichstag (Parliament) was formed
through
direct elections where people voted for a party (not for people) and
the % of votes
a party received was the % of the seats the party got.
-
Since the Chancellor came from the majority party, if
there was no majority party, the President was allowed to appoint a
Chancellor.
There were three (really two) types of Chancellor:
1.
Parliamentary
Chancellor à the
Parliamentary Chancellor could suggest laws, but the laws had to be
passed by a
majority vote of the Reichstag.
2.
Presidential
Chancellor à the
Presidential Chancellor could declare laws by decree unless a majority
of the
Reichstag vetoed them. To stop a Presidential Chancellor, there would
have to
be a “negative majority” in the Reichstag.
3.
Temporary
Dictator à the
Constitution also allowed for a “temporary dictator” in times of
emergency if
2/3 of the Reichstag agreed.
-
At first, the Weimar Republic had a really rough time. The
Republic’s first act on November 11, 1918 was to agree to an
armistice
(which was really a surrender). This armistice was seen as the first
failure of
the Weimar Republic.
-
After a war that had totally exhausted the country, it was
really hard for Germany to bear defeat. The army consequently made up a
myth
about being “stabbed in the back” by people inside Germany. According
to them,
it was the left-wing politicians (also Jewish people) that caused their
loss.
-
During this time President Hindenburg and Chancellor Ebert
ran the country. The democracy seemed on the right track, even though
the SPD
(Socialists) had made a horrid deal with the army, which led to the
brutal
murder of the Spartakus Band (ancestors of the KPD: Communists). After
this,
the KPD had no leaders (and was controlled by Moscow) and the left was
forever
divided.
-
In 1920, there was the Kapp Putsch, in which the
right-wing extremist army officers seized Berlin. Although the army
would not
fire on them, they were eventually forced to withdraw by the left-wing
labor
unions. This contributed to the instability of the time.
-
Then in 1923 came horrible ultra-inflation! Caused by the
French occupation of the Ruhr (industrial heartland) b/c when Germany
fell
behind in paying the reparations that French seized the German
factories, the
German workers went on strike, and then, when the gov’t decided to pay
the
French, money became worthless. This was horrible for people: all their
savings
disappeared – and was seen as the second failure of the Weimar Republic
(it
wasn’t their fault though).
-
Then on November 8/9, 1923, the Beer Hall Putsch occurs,
led by General Ludendorff and Hitler (unknown at the time). It fails
miserably,
but Hitler gets nat’l press coverage, gets out of jail after a really
short
time, and learns that legality is the way to go (working
though the
gov’t to destroy it).
-
From 1925 to 1925, though, the Republic does really well!
The economy is OK, led by Gustav Stresemann (foreign minister)
Germany
gets admitted into the League of Nations and is back in the
international
community. Moderate parties are doing well, not the Nazis.
-
But then in 1929 w/the Great Depression everything
collapses. Since Germany is dependent on US $, when the US economy
crashes so
does the German, only worse. Now the “misery parties” begin to come
into their
own…
*The
Rise of Fascism in Germany*
-
One party that made a spectacular rise with the onset of
the depression (along with the KPD and SPD) was the Nazi party,
led by
Adolph Hitler (who took it over when he found it on a spy job and
changed it
from a pretty harmless “everyman” party to an insane militaristic one).
-
The Nazis attacked democracy, advocated war against
Germany’s enemies (Jews, Communists, other nations, etc.) and had the
SA (a
street army of brown-shirted storm troopers), the SS (an elite group in
black
uniforms who were bodyguards and special police), and propaganda to
spread
their message.
-
With the depression and the failure of the Republic to
solve the problems plaguing it (what could it do?) the Nazis, with
their calls
for rearmament and stopping the Communists, became more popular.
-
Because of the depression, in 1930 the coalition
government of Social Democrats resigned and the Center party (led by Bruning)
took over. Hindenburg allowed the new government to enact measures by
decree,
but this didn’t help b/c there was a negative majority so
nothing could
get done.
-
Since the 1930 election gave the Nazis more seats Hitler
ran for president in 1932 (though he knew he would lose against
Hindenburg). He
lost, but he got lots of press coverage, etc. Hindenburg then picked a
new
chancellor Franz von Papen (the moron).
-
Papen tried to gain Hitler’s support by (stupidly) lifting
the bans on the SA and SS and tried to form a right-wing coalition. But
it
didn’t work, Hindenburg called another election, and the Nazis gained!
But
Hindenburg (who didn’t like Hitler) still didn’t name him chancellor,
picking Von
Schleicher.
-
Now Papen (who wanted to get back into power) told
Hindenburg to appoint Hitler the head of a coalition government (the
only way
to stop the negative majority). He did so on the terms that: there
would be no
other Nazis in the cabinet, and every time Hitler met w/him Papen would
be
there too.
-
Papen thought he could use Hitler, but the joke was on him
– it was the other way around. Again being underestimated is a big
advantage
(think Napoleon). Hitler takes the deal in 1933. Almost immediately, he
called
another election, and through cheating, the Nazis won an even bigger
majority.
-
Then (lucky for Hitler) the Reichstag building was set on
fire. Hitler blamed it on the Communists, declared a state of emergency
(which
allowed him to issue all these special laws that ended individual
freedoms) and
then after the election outlawed the KPD so he would get a
majority!
-
But he still didn’t have the 2/3 majority needed to become
a dictator. So he sucked up to the Center party and made all these
promises to
them (yea right) and was then able to pass the Enabling Act,
which gave
him, as chancellor, the right to enact all laws w/o the Reichstag for
four
years.
*Germany
Under Hitler*
-
First Hitler moved to consolidate his power by sending all
his opponents to concentration camps or putting them in exile, etc. By
July he
outlawed all other parties and destroyed the opposition, and by
November he had
restructured the government and purged the civil service and judiciary,
outlawed strikes, and controlled the press (sound familiar – think
Mussolini).
-
Then in June 1934 he got rid of all the other leaders of
the party and any opposition leaders who were left in the Night of
the Long
Knives (also done b/c of an agreement w/the army which stated that
in
return for never allowing the SA to take them over, the army would
swear oaths
of allegiance to him and allow him to become President too). When
Hindenburg
died in August, he declared himself Fuhrer (uniting the
Presidency and
Chancellorship) and supported the decision through a vote.
-
Then, the federal states lost their autonomy (gleichschaltung
– coordination) and all gov’t employees were made appointees of
Hitler. New
courts were established, strikes were outlawed (the National Labor
Front
directed all concerns) and the Gestapo (secret police) infiltrated all
levels
of society.
-
In economics, they were very successful. Public works
projects lowered unemployment to a tolerable level, and the gov’t used
deficit
spending to restore the economy. To pay for this, a system devised by
the
brilliant economist Hjalmar Schacht required that payments for
foreign
trade be made w/$ whose value changed according to the products and
nations
involved (pretty much barter). This increased Germany’s
self-sufficiency, but
in the end they paid by printing more $.
-
During this time, propaganda advertised the benefits of
the new government. Women were presented as subordinate members of the
family
(meant for breeding more Aryans). Also, Hitler sucked up to the army by
pushing
rearmament and gained more direct control of different branches of the
government, such as the foreign services.
-
To deal w/the church, Hitler made a concordat with the
Vatican in 1933, which gave the state a voice in the appointment of
bishops but
assured the Church of its authority over Catholic orders and schools.
Protestants were given the Evangelical Church under a bishop appointed
by
Hitler (although many left when the bishop said he would “Aryanize” the
church
and formed the Confessional Church). Most clergy cooperated w/the
state, the
ones who resisted were arrested.
-
Then there was anti-Semitism. In 1935, the gov’t codified
its anti-Semitic beliefs in the Nuremberg Laws and then added many
other
horrible laws to oppress the Jewish people. In 1938 Kristallnacht occurred
after a Jewish boy murdered a German diplomat: Jews were beaten and
murdered
and their property was destroyed. Gypsies were also attacked.
*Authoritarian
Regimes in Central Europe*
-
By 1929, in Central Europe, authoritarian regimes had
taken over Hungary, Spain, Albania, Portugal, Lithuania, and
Yugoslavia, and by
1936 liberties had also been suppressed in Romania, Austria, Bulgaria,
Estonia,
Latvia and Greece.
-
For the most part, the new regimes were conservative,
Christian and anti-communist, and are sometimes called semi-fascist.
The only
exception to the rule was Czechoslovakia, which was a democratic
republic with
free enterprise led by Thomas Masaryk (a brilliant statesman).
*1933-1935:
The Nightmare Begins*
-
Beginning in 1933, foreign policy leading up to the war
was slowly approaching the inevitable. All the players could see it
coming, but
many still attempted to prevent it. Remember, just like the escalator
descending into the mess below: you can’t turn around and you can’t run
away.
-
In 1933, Hitler comes to power. As he still has not
secured his position in Germany his only move is to drop out a
disarmament
conference (not very nice).
-
By 1934 Hitler has consolidated his position in Germany
and is ready to begin his aggressive foreign policy. His first move is
very
strange and surprising: he forms a 10-year non-aggression pact with
Poland
(obviously no intention of living up to it, does it to give people a
false
sense of security).
-
In 1934 his only foreign policy flop occurs: his attempt
to create the anschluss (union of Germany and Austria) through
a Nazi
putsch in Austria fails. He was stopped b/c Mussolini (then allied
w/Austria
and not friends w/Germany) threatened to invade.
-
Then came 1935, a big year. On March 9 (Saturday
Night Special) Hitler announces he will build an air force. There are
no
protests. On March 16 (SNS) he announces that Germany will
build a navy
and a ½ million man army. France freaks, asks England what to
do, English
protest, so Hitler promises Germany will never have more than 35% of
the
English navy. The English agree in essence throwing out the Treaty of
Versailles. Also in this year Italy invades Ethiopia and gets kicked
out of the
League of Nations. Hitler congratulates him (suck-up).
*1936-1937:
Things Get Worse*
-
In March 1936, Hitler tells his Generals that he wants to
remilitarize the Rhineland (breaking the Versailles Treaty and Locarno
Pact,
which was signed freely and says if single German soldier there then it
will be
considered a Germany invasion). Even Generals think this is going too
far (the
French will lose it, they warn) but Hitler insists, though he says if
single
French soldier attacks they will turn around. France springs into
action and
asks England, who says let them have it (!) so in one fell swoop they
gain back
the entire Rhineland. How stupid could they be?
-
Also in 1936, the Spanish Civil War breaks out. In
it the Loyalists/Republicans (liberals, socialists,
communists, etc.)
fight the fascists (army and Franco). Hitler and Mussolini
send
equipment and troops to the fascists, France asks England what to do,
England
says stay out so they do. During this time, Hitler and Mussolini form
the Axis
Alliance (axis of evil). The only person, ironically enough,
defending the
Republicans was the USSR (Stalin) so the gov’t got labeled as
Stalinist. In
1939, Franco won but refused to join the Axis in WWII although he hoped
they
would win.
-
Nothing big happens in 1937, but Hitler does call a secret
meeting of his advisers (known now through secret documents captured)
and says
he wants a war of conquest between 1938 and 1943. The advisers who
objected
were kicked out. The meeting was called the Hossbach Protocol.
Also,
during this time the English Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain (a.k.a.
the moron) introduced (though he had already been using it) his policy
of appeasement
– give them what they want anything is better than war – and he
replaces people
who don’t support the policy w/those who do.
*1938:
A Horrible Year*
-
Now the big issue (again) is the Anschluss but this
time Mussolini is Hitler’s ally and will not support Austria. Hitler
wants a
full German nation (finish what Bismarck started). So he has Nazis go
to
Austria and has the SA start making trouble. When the SA riots are put
down,
Hitler says that the German people are being persecuted.
-
Then in November the Austrian Chancellor Kurt von
Schussnig (“no Anschluss for Schussnig”) banned the SA/SS.
Hitler
freaked and threatened him, forcing him to lift the ban and put Nazis
as heads
of police and army. Now the Nazis can hold all their rallies and beat
people
up.
-
As a last resort, Schussnig calls a plebiscite on the
Anschluss but Germany mobilizes and at the last minute Schussnig calls
off the
vote and resigns. So in March the new Nazi “chancellor” (he appointed
himself)
invites the German army in to “put down disturbances” (which they
caused) and
Austria falls to Germany.
-
Then, Hitler decides he wants the Sudetenland from
Czechoslovakia. He uses the tactics he used w/Austria but in May the
Czechs
mobilize and he can’t respond, so it looks like he backed down (oh the
humiliation). Hitler is so mad he declares: “If I don’t have
Czechoslovakia by
October 1, WAR!” at least to his generals.
-
Remember, Czechoslovakia is the Versailles success story:
the only democracy that works, w/a strong economy, great border
defenses and a
well-trained army. It is allied w/Yugoslavia, Romania, France, England,
and the
USSR. If Germany invaded it would lose.
-
On September 15, Neville Chamberlain goes to Berlin
and talks to Hitler, who says he wants the SDL (“last territorial
demand”). NC
goes home, tells Daladier (France) and the Czechs they should let him
have it.
A week later, NC goes back and finds out Hitler now wants ½ of
Czechoslovakia
by October 1. Everyone is preparing for war (remember how much easier
it would
be to defend Czechoslovakia than Poland) but then Mussolini chickens
out and
calls the…
-
Munich Conference (9/29/38) à Hitler,
Chamberlain, Daladier and Mussolini (no Russia or Czechoslovakia) meet.
Germany
gets everything it wants: ½ of Czechoslovakia as
protectorate, all
fortifications and stuff there, etc. By 1939 he has taken all of
Czechoslovakia.
*1939:
War Begins*
-
Now he wants Poland. Although he had a better claim to
Poland, the West wakes up (it’s about time, folks) and realizes Hitler
doesn’t
just want to conquer German people – hey he wants to conquer all of us!
So,
they decide to back Poland.
-
By August everyone knows war is coming, but Hitler has one
last trick up his sleeve: a non-aggression pact w/Stalin! Of course he
is only
thinking for the short run to avoid the two front war. Stalin is
thinking the
West wants the USSR and Germany to mutually eliminate e/o by not
supporting him
against Hitler. He doesn’t want this to occur. Stalin and Hitler also
make a
deal to split Poland.
-
On September 1, 1939 the war begins through a phony
invasion of Germany by “Poland” (really the Germans in Polish army
suits).
Appeasement is finally over.
*The
Course of the War*
-
So on September 1, 1939 the war began over Poland. Britain
and France gave Hitler 48 hours to evacuate Poland and on September 3
major war
began. Poland was beaten in a really short time by the German tactic of
Blitzkrieg.
-
Then the so-called “Phony War” began. For six months
neither side made any big moves on land b/c they didn’t want to waste
troops
and make the mistakes of WWI. This break was ended when the Germans
attacked on
the Western front on May 10, 1940.
-
At the same time, Russia was fighting Finland b/c Stalin
wanted Finnish territory for defensive purposes against his “ally”
Hitler.
Finland wasn’t too hot on the idea, Stalin wanted to rush in and kick
their
butts, but it proved to be harder than expected as the Finns held the
Russians
back for weeks. Finally the Russians won (they had more people). Hitler
(and
Stalin who then reorganized the army) realized the Russian army was in
bad
shape.
-
Meanwhile the Germans were wiping out one country after
another: France fell in six weeks, as did Belgium and the Netherlands.
Italy
joined the war on Germany’s side, so the British were the last ones
left
against Hitler. Their fate was decided by the Battle of Britain,
which
was an air battle in the summer of 1940. Luckily, the British won out
using
their radar technology and the Germans turned their sights to (just
like
Napoleon)…Russia!
-
Hitler’s attack on Russia totally surprised Stalin, and
the Germans were kicking the Red Army’s butt. Millions of Russian
troops were
killed or captured (sent to Germany to be slaves). But they still
couldn’t
capture Moscow or Leningrad. Then on December 6, the Russians suddenly
counterattacked the Germans at Moscow (troops were in reserve for
fighting the
Japanese).
-
Then on December 7, Pearl Harbor. The US declares war on
Japan, and then Germany declares war on the US (really stupid move,
they were
just asking for it).
-
The German army was barely surviving the Russian winter.
Their plan was to capture the oil fields in the southern USSR. The
crucial battle
to get there was the battle of Stalingrad (if the Germans did not win
there
would always be the threat of a Russian attack). This is the decisive
battle
and both sides knew it.
-
In November 1942, the Red Army was able to surround the
Germans at Stalingrad and they are cut off. Hitler does not allow his
troops to
retreat, but by January 1943 remaining troops surrender. Now it is just
a chase
heading back to Germany with the Russians pushing the Germans out.
-
Things go from bad to worse for the Germans and Germany
surrenders unconditionally on May 8, 1945 (VE Day). Hitler had
killed
himself (4/30/45) to avoid being captured by the Russians.
-
The other WWII fronts included:
1.
North Atlantic à Allies were battling
U-boats to
ensure that they would be able to attack Europe from Britain.
2.
North Africa à British and Americans
against
Rommel’s Afrika Korps, Axis driven out in 1942. Then Americans were
told to go
after Italy, which was stupid.
3.
Italy à Americans land there and
take
over Sicily, so the Italians get rid of Mussolini and surrender. But
then
Germany took over Italy and continued the war there to great effect as
they
kept lots of Allied troops busy and accomplishing nothing.
4.
France à Because of the Italy
campaign the
invasion of France was delayed until 1944. Then D-Day was on June 6,
1944. Led
by Eisenhower, the allies caught the Germans by surprise and moved
across
northern France. They met up with the Russians in central German in
March 1945.
-
Then the war with Japan continued for a while until, after
the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the Japanese surrendered
unconditionally on September 2, 1945 (VJ Day).
*The
Aftermath of the War*
-
After the war, all of Europe was in shambles. Major cities
had been destroyed as a result of bombing, industry was really messed
up, there
were refugees everywhere, etc.
-
There was no big peace conference after WWII, but along
the course of the war several meetings of the allies had helped decide
policy:
1.
Casablanca à In 1942 FDR and Churchill
met and agreed that their goal
was to be unconditional surrender, only.
2.
Teheran à In 1943 FDR and Churchill
met and promised to start a
second front in France.
3.
Yalta à In 1945 FDR, Churchill
and Stalin met. This meeting was
important for it is often considered the beginning of the cold war. At
Yalta,
it was decided to divide Germany into 4 zones (US, USSR, British,
French) and
Berlin into zones as well. The Allies decided to occupy and
demilitarize
Germany. Since US didn’t have bomb yet it was thought Japan war would
go on for
several years, so the US wanted USSR support and got it in exchange for
Russia
getting the land it lost in the Russo-Japanese war. It was agreed
Eastern
Europe would have free elections but the governments would have to be
“friendly” to the USSR.
4.
Potsdam à After the war was over,
in July 1945, the Allies met and
outlined the future of Germany. The borders in Eastern Europe were
changed a
little and the zones of occupation in Germany were established. They
also
worked out terms of peace w/Japan.
-
Then there were a series of trial, the Nuremberg Trials,
which tried the Nazi war criminals in 1945 and 1946. Several
international
agencies, including the United Nations, were created after WWII.
Mainly, after
WWII, there was an era of slow (but steady) recovery helped by the US.
Of
course, there was also the threat of the Cold War.
à The Thirty
Years War and the Wars of Religion in France
à The
Napoleonic Era and the Congress of Vienna
à Post WWII
Europe: The Cold War and European Recovery
I
got too lazy! My apologies. Also, sorry for any typos,
etc.
©
2001