Tantrik Worship and Christian
Liturgy
Prof. O. M. Mathew
School of Indian Legal Thought
Mahatma Gandhi University
Kottayam, Kerala, India
DEDICATION
CONTENTS
Man Incorrigibly Ritualistic
Tantrikism and art of Disciplined Worship
Parallel to St. Paul's appeal
Life, not an essay on logic
Garland of Letters
Drives away Demons
Not the mystery religions, but..."
Sandhyavandanam and Angelus
The Truth is one. Knowers call it differently
Apostolic Succession
Even gods fear Time
Man makes a tryst
Synagogue, Basilica and Court
Replica of Human body
No Mirabila Dei
Black Man burnt
Warning to Inculturation
References
Interesting Links
Man Incorrigibly Ritualistic
A tidal wave of ritualistic revival is surging both
in Hinduism and Christianity. The ordinary run of mankind can neither apprehend
nor appreciate abstract metaphysical concepts. They would accept and acknowledge
them only when presented in palpable and perceivable forms. Rituals, naturally
emerge. They attune the human mind as reins restrain the resistive horses.
Herein lies the prime importance of the study of Tantrikism.
Tantrikism, and art of Disciplined
Worship
The underlying philosophy of Tantrikism is
ofcourse monistic. This world and its myriads of objects are emanations
from the Supreme Lord called Siva. This emanation is like the flow of fire
from fire. And, it is due to the inherence of Sive, the `Principle of Power',
in Siva, who is the `Consciousness Principle'.
As for the individual, or Jiva, he is a
finite form of Siva himself. Thus the mighty master that leads the vast
sublime symphony of the starry heavens and the tiny master that murmurs
within the recess of the mind of man, are equated as in the Vedantic dictum
`That Thou Art'.
Yet, a polarity is visible in the individual.
Siva lies coiled up like a serpent at the tip of the vertebral column and
so, she is called in Tantrik writings, the `Serpent Power', or Kundalini.
Siva, the ` Consciousness Principle', sits
enthroned at the other pole i.e., in the midst of the `thousand petalled
lotus' or `Sahasrarapadma' of the human brain.
This polarity is to be destroyed by Tantrik
Worship or `Kiriyas'. To re-cognize the pristine nature, or in Christian
terminology, to regain the `Lost Paradise', Tantrikism has evolved umpteen
ways. The gist of them is Love to the Divine, as in Christianity. Naturally,
Tantrikism has become a Science of Worship.
So, this branch of Indian Thought has for
its mainstay, the art of disciplined worship. The ancient adepts of Tantriksm
asserted that man cannot give vent to sentiments of mind and songs of the
soul except through the media of senses and usage of symbols.
Parallel to St. Paul's appeal
There is yet another reason for the burgeoning interest
in Tantrikism. It is its universal appeal. Arthur Avalon[1],
the English born Indian jurist, who made a through study of the ancient
texts on Tantrikism very candidly contends; ``the significance of Tantra
Sastra lies in this, that it claims to afford a means available to all,
of whatever caste and either sex....'' Is there not a parallelism in these
lines to the appeal of St. Paul, for the Christian ministry to the gentiles?
one asks.
Bhagavad Gita
Life, not an essay on logic
In Christianity too, the trend towards ritualism
is being accentuated. What, James F. White[2],
the Methodist theologian of the U.S. comments, may be quoted here. ``Much
of Christianity today, is in a stage of recovery of the early practices
and concepts''. It is becoming evident that faith cannot be maintained
by a parade of high sounding words and hymn singing. As the Orthodox Bishop,
Paulose Mar Gregorius[3], observes ``
the modern man is tired of the preached word. He has desperate need in
his mind, for levels deeper than the conscious, to respond to the transcendental,
through beauty of form ..... That which is beyond logic and exact concepts
must find expression in the words and in action by rubrics ''. Human history
is proof, that logic and life do not always go hand in hand. Life is not
an essay on logic. Nor logic a lullaby on life. Logic is not a synonym
for insight and methodological argument is not a substitute for wisdom.
So a Liturgy, if it is to uplift man, should have channels for emotive
expressions. This view is endorsed by Dr. White[4].
He says ``we should not underplay actions while acting the Eucharist. These
sign-acts are not decorations; they are a vital part of ministry.... There
is a body language, as well as a vocal one, and we must learn to speak
both with eloquence '' Bishop Clement of Alexandria, used to advise the
members of his Church to clap the hands while praying. Even the Pentecostal
Christians, who scorn and scoff all sorts of rituals become exuberant with
emotion, and they do clap and clatter, while praying.
Garland of Letters
In the technical sense, Tantrikism is defined as
a science which promulgates, matters relating to `Tatwa' and `Mantra'.
The term Tatwa stands for the science of `Cosmic Principles'. According
to Tantrikism, Tatwas are thirty-six in number. They are said to survive
space and time, till Deluge. Mantra signifies the mystical sound. They
are said to save human beings from the cycle of birth and death, when muttered
after proper meditation. Infact, the word Mantra has two aspects; `manana'
meaning meditation and `trana' signifying protection. The alphabets of
the Mantras are called `Matrkas'. They emanate from the primordial sound
created by the inexplicable primary movement, in the otherwise quiescent
`Siva-Sakti' combine.
The garland of skulls adorning the neck
of `Mother Kali', is a Tantrik representation of the alphabets of the Sanskrit
language. Avalon calls this necklace the `Garland of Letters'. According
to Tantrik theory, everything in this Universe is the manifestation of
alphabets. Some of them, as for instance, `Aum', `Hrim', `Phut' are of
monosyllables, while some like `Aym Hrim Srim' or `Nama Sivaya' are of
polysyllables, similar to the Hebrew tetragrammaton `YHWH'.
Drives away Demons
Besides, the Tantriks invented certain gestures called
`Mudras', to be employed in Worship. They are formed by movements of limbs
of the body, or holding them in particular form. ``The Mudras are the languages
in which the body speaks to the Deity''[5].
`Isanasivagurudeva Paddhathi' an antiquarian treatise on Tantrikism, describes
Mudras as ceremonial poses of hands employing symbolic position of fingers.
Through these processes, the body expresses and emphasises the intentions
of the mind as an orator gives expression to his thoughts and emphasizes
them through gestures. So, a Mudra is an idea condensed in symbols. For
that reason, the gestures used in the Eucharist are also Mudras. The word
`Mudra' comes from the sanskrit roots `Mud' meaning `to please' and `Dravayanti'
meaning `to drive away'. Therefore, Mudra means, that which pleases God
and drives away demons. Nonetheless, the Tantriks warn that even while
the hands are employed, the mind must not wander helter-skelter. Heart
and hands are to be employed in tandem. That is why, Sri. Aurobindo, the
modern interpreter of Tantrikism remarks `` If worship is purely external,
it is of the lowest form. But if done with true consciousness it can bring
the greatest possible completion to the adoration''[6].
Mantras and Mudras are both employed in Christian Liturgy, in the rites
of consecration, epiclesis, benediction, imposition of hands etc.
Not the mystery religions, but......
Prejudices apart, one is led, by historical researches,
to conclude that more than the mystery religions of the Hellenic world,
it was the Tantrik worship of the Hindu world, that influenced the bulk
of the Christian practices. Prof. P. Bandopadhyaya, a celebrated Tantrik
authority of Bengal opined ``We believe that the Sadhana of the Moslems
and the esoteric religious rituals of the Christians of the Roman Catholic
Church and Greek Churches are based on the Tantras....Many historians acknowledge
that the worship of Sakti or Tantrik Sadhana spread into Phoenicia and
Greece. Consequently, we may suppose that the influence of the Tantras
was felt in primitive Christianity''[7].
Sandhyavandanam and Angelus
Furnished below, are
some of the Tantrik practices of worship with their corresponding ones
in Christianity.
Ringing of bells, tending of the fire, burning
of incenses are in prolific usage both in Tantrikism and Christian Churches
like the Roman Catholic and the Orthodox. Reform Churches make use of only
a few of them and that too scantily. Mystic literature suggests that sound
of bells, flame of fire and layers of smoke are the media to convey the
mystical non-sensuous experience. It is put forward by Swami Sakyananda
of Sri. Ramana Mutt, Kerala, that it was the itinerant Siva Yogis of India
who taught long ago, the use of rosary to the Christians of Syria and Palestine,
where it is in vogue even today. Since then, its use has spread to Europe.
There is yet another theory. It was during the Crusades, that the West
learnt the use of the rosary from the Arabs who had come to know of it
from their contact with `Hindustan'. If so, it is really a good fallout
of a Holy war! The Roman Catholic Church holds that the counting of the
rosary is not only a spiritual exercise but also a cure for relieving mental
shocks. According to Fulton J. Sheen, a former Roman Catholic Ancillary
Bishop of New York, the `Mother Church' recommends the counting of beads
as a psychic remedy, just as some of the psychiatrists of the 1st World
War period had prescribed knitting and handicrafts, as cures to patients
who had developed war neurosis[8]. By
these processes, it was suggested that the pent up energy would flow through
the extremities of the fingers. The `Sandhyavandanam' i.e. the prayer of
the Tantriks at sunrise, midday and sunset are similar to the Church `Angelus'
at the morning, noon and evening. The spiritual observances like abstinence
and periodic fastings, collectively called `Vrats', practised by the Tantriks,
correspond with lents and `Novenas', undertaken by the followers of the
Roman and Orthodox Churches. The `Kavachas' and the `Rakshas', i.e. the
Tantrik protective instruments to ward off evil influences have their counterparts
in scapulars, medals and `Agnes Dei' prescribed by the Catholic, Orthodox
and Protestant Churches. Retreats and pilgrimages are recommended by both
Tantriks and Christians. So is the veneration to the shrines of saints.
Prayer for the departed souls is strictly followed by Tantriks and the
non reformist sects of Christianity. `Asperges' or sprinkling with water,
and the anointing with oil are yet other practices found in both the religions
under review.
The symbol of the triangle, with a dot at
the centre, is of great esoteric significance for the Tantriks. With a
slight modification of fixing the `gnostic eye' in place of the dot, the
triangle is engraved at the altars of some of the ancient churches of Kerala.
As for instance, in the Old Syrian Seminary at Kottayam, Kerala. As the
priest of a Hindu temple circumambulates the sanctum and temple complex,
so does his counterpart of the Syrian Church go round the altar. Curiously
in anti-clockwise direction! The spirit of the worship of `Mother Goddess'
in the Sakta system of Tantrikism is reflected in the superior worship
or `Hyperdulia' of the Blessed Virgin in the Roman Church, even though
the Church does not accord her the status of a goddess. It was this practice
of the Italian Catholics that prompted Swami Vivekananda, the representative
of Hinduism in the `World Parliament of Religions' held in Chicago, 1893,
and the chief disciple of Sree Ramana Paramahamsa, a Tantrik adept and
the `God intoxicated man', to call them `Saktas'[9].
`Mudras', here meaning parched corn and 'Madya' or wine, offered to `Mother
Goddess' in certain types of Tantric Worhip, can be compared to the `Bread
and Wine' of the Eucharist. The `Mahanirvana Tantra' which is undoubtedly
an authoritative treatise on Tantrikism, designates `Devi Tara', one form
of Sakti, as `Dravya Mayi'[10] i.e.,
`Saviour in liquid form'. We are struck by the cognate concept of wine
becoming the blood of Christ, the saviour, either due to transubstantiation
as the Roman Church holds, or throuh a `mystery' as the Eastern Churches
maintain. On account of the rampant use of the rituals, the Roman and Orthodox
Churches are charged with paganism, by the reformed Churches. This allegation
seems to be hyperbolic. For, James Moffet, the protestant theologian did
detect in Luther an indifference to or detachment from rites and forms[11].
The Truth is one. Knowers call
it differently
A more indepth comparison and contrast between Tantrik
system and Christian Liturgy is ventured in the following lines.
The corpus of any Public Worship necessarily
must have five components. They are the Officiator, Time, Space, Community
and Divinity. As these five factors are detected both in Tantrik Worship
and Christian Liturgy, they both are to be deemed logically as kindred
ones. Even if we make no attempt to force analogies into similarities,
we still cannot ignore the semblances between the two systems. After all,
as the Rig Veda[12] proclaims `Ekam
Sat Vipra Bahuta Vadanti' i.e, The Truth is one; knowers call It by different
names, or as the Anglo-Catholic theologian Evlyn Underhill[13]
expresses, ``Worship in its grade and kinds, is the response of the creature
to the Eternal. Worship emerges as a stylized religious emotion. Worship
is characterized by the worshipper's conception of God and his relation
to God''.
Apostolic Succession
The Tantrik `Officiator' or `Tantri', like his counterpart
in Christianity, must be duly ordained or initiated by a preceptor. The
Tantriks teach that spiritual or religious office cannot be obtained by
practices like coaxing or simony. Christianity also condemns such practices.
The fate of Simon Magus, as narrated in Chap. VIII of the `Acts of the
Apostles' of the New Testament, is deemed as a standing warning by the
Christians. Both in Christianity and Tantrikism, Initiation is an esoteric
ceremony. Initiation is generally performed by the preceptores of both
the systems, by the laying on of the hands on the head of the noviciate
or disciple, and also by imparting `instructions'. The doctrine of `Apostolic
Succession', assiduously adhered by Christian denominations except the
`left wingers' has all the elements of `Guru-Sisya' or `Preceptor-Novitiate'
theory of the Tantriks.
Even gods fear Time
`Time' factor is an
important element in Tantrik Worship. This is so, because every face of
the 'Worship' is determined by timing. Hence the importance of the Almanac,
in Tantrikism. Time is looked at, by Tantriks with awe. The Hindu maxim
is that everything fears Time; even gods are no exceptions. But in this
system, Time has only calculative or astronomical value and so has `unidimensional'
bearing. It is a memo to perform worship and spiritual exercises in accordance
with the recurring rhythm of natural events like the waxing and waning
of the moon or the signs of the zodiac. In Christianity on the other hand,
`Time' is `three dimensional' as it has theological, historical and pastoral
bearings. Christ is considered as the Logos of theology, Jesus of history,
and Malchezadok of clerical hierarchy. It is often said that the God of
Christianity is the God of History. This concept is amply reflected in
the Christian Calendar. `` The Christian Calendar is a means by which we
relive for ourselves all the matters of Salvation History''[14].
It may be described as an essay by dates and seasons, on the life and mission
of Lord Christ, the Saviour. The Hindu Almanac, contains no reference of
any act of salvation by any human or divine being.
Man makes a tryst
Adverting to `Space' the third element, it
must be admitted that the Temple, like the Christian Church, provides the
`Space' required for communal worship. This function visibly, is nothing
but action. The systole and diastole of Tantrik Worship are enacted in
the Temple as those of the Liturgy performed in the Church. Both of them
are therefore, sanctuaries. Here, man makes a tryst with his maker. The
story of mankind, inter alia suggests that the style of worship would determine
the structure of the sanctuary and conversely, its architecture would decide
the ways of Worship.
Synagogue, Basilica and Court
Architecture is the art of organizing space. The
Church architecture provides the setting and shelter needed for communal
worship and conducting ceremonies in a union of esprit de corps or camaraderie.
Church architecture is a compromise to provide space for the three liturgical
functions of acting, speaking and communicating. So, the Church combines
in itself, the elements of the utility of the Jewish Synagogue, the formalism
of the Roman Basilica and grandeur of the Byzantine Court. Despite that,
the architecture of the church is the product of evolution and synthesis
of various national styles. Every such building must have `Liturgical Space'
and `Liturgical Centres'. To the first category belong, the spaces for
the Congregation, Movement, Choir, Baptism and Sanctuary. `Liturgical Centres'
denote, the Pulpit, the Baptismal font, and the Altar table. Other adjuncts,
if any, are auxiliary ones.
Replica of Human body
In contradistination,
is the conception and construction, of a Temple. It is conceived of, anthropomorphically
and constructed as a replica of human body. The names of the various visible
portions of a Temple are the very same ones used to denote the different
parts of the human body. This has been beautifully brought out in the `Viswakarmeeya',
an antiquarian Tantrik text. In the art and science of Temple architecture,
the Tantriks have taken the cue from the Yoga Philosophy. According to
the Yoga system human organism has a subtle invisible body besides the
visible gross body, called by the Yogis the physical sheath. Encased in
it, is the subtle body with its four sheaths, arranged in concentric order.
Immediately inside the physical sheath, is the vital sheath; then the mental,
the cognital and the blissful, each one inside the other. Thus, according
to the Yoga literature, the human body, when viewed laterally, has five
sheaths including the physical. All these five are represented by different
enclosures or spaces in temples constructed according to Tantrik formulae.
The outermost one, called `Bahyahara' is between the outermost wall of
the temple precincts and the first circumambulatory passage. This space
represents the physical sheath. Lying between this passage and the array
of lamp holdings, is the `Madhyahara' or the middle enclosure. It represents
the vital sheath. The sacrificial stone or altar is installed in this enclosure.
The devotee is expected to sacrifice his `ego' at this altar. The Madhyahara
leads into the space called `Anthahara' or inner enclosure, representing
the mental sheath. It will have verandas on all the four sides for keeping
the objects of worship and offertories. This is quite symbolic as worship
essentially should originate in mind. Then is the cognital sheath, represented
by the space between the third enclosure and the passage for going round
the sanctum. It is named the `Antarmandala', the intermediary space. It
is here, that the platform for prostration, is built. The scriptures are
recited sitting on this forum. Beyond this, is the innermost space called
the Sanctum or `Srikovil'. It represents the `blissful sheath'. Technically,
its name is Gabhagriha. It is named so, precisely because it protects the
Deity installed therein, as the womb preserves the foetus. As it is the
most important part of the temple, it is constructed on a more elevated
portion than the other parts, exactly as the sanctum is built in Churches.
The shape of the Garbhagriha may be square, rectangular, circular, apsidal,
elliptical, hexagonal or octagonal. The roof and the crest thereon are
deemed to be the head and the crown of the Deity. In the centre of the
Garbhagriha is fixed a pita or pedestal of granite stone. This stands for
the `thousand petalled lotus' located at its centre. The image, representing
the indwelling spirit in man, is fixed over the pita. Before the installation,
however, the spinal column, which is a downward continnum of the brain
must have been drilled into the earth just below the pita. The Yogis contend
that there are six centres of psychic energy in the spinal column of man.
At the bottom tip, in the region of the anus, is the centre called `Mooladhara'
or base support. The other centres or chakras as they are called in Yoga
system, are the `Swadhishtana', `Manipooraka', `Anahata', `Visudhi' and
`Ajna', in the ascending order. They are located in or around the region
of the genital, nave, heart, throat and the point where the eye brows meet.
In the vertebral column of the Deity also, these centres are symbolically
represented. The root base, by a square granite stone, the swadhishtana
by a bunch of grains, the manipooraka by a treasure chest, the anahata
by a set of lotus and tortoise, the visudhi by a tapering copper tube and
the ajna by another granite slab. It is to be recalled that the pita is
placed over this slab, and the Image installed over this pita. In short,
a temple is constructed both vertically and laterally after a human body.
It
is to be noted that the Image is to be `enlivened' before declared fit
to be worshipped and adored. A lot of rites are involved in the process.
Four of them are of special significance. The Tantri sprinkles over the
Image, water sanctified by mantras, mudras and surcharged by the transmission
of his own spiritual powers. Secondly, the Image is infused with a particular
mantra called the `Moolamanthra' or `Personal Mantra' of the Deity. It
is an esoteric doctrine of Tantrikism that the `Personal Mantra' and the
Deity become identified and they together incarnate in the Image and reside
therein as a gestalt. The Christian doctrine of the `Word' becoming `Flesh',
is an allied one. Next, `Nyasa', is performed. Nyasa, which is a Sanskrit
word, means `to place'. It signifies the placing of the fingers and palm
of the right hand in the various parts of the Image, invoking the thirty
six Cosmic Principles. Finally, sacred hymns, again invoking the Deity
to be present in the Image, are sung. It is a rite similar to epiclesis
in the Eucharist. With these rites over, the Image is hailed as enlivened.
The Deity is thus believed to be present in the Image as the Christians
believe in the presence of God, in the Church, after its sanctification
by the High Priest.
No Mirabila Dei
About the Communal aspect which is the fourth factor
in Worship, much is not to be mentioned with regard to the Temple. The
Temple is corporate only by courtesy or it is only in an insipid form,
whereas Christian existence is essentially corporate. As Prof. George Florovsky[15]
rightly points out ``To be a Christian means to be in the community in
Church''. The communal aspect of Christians, is rooted in the promise of
Lord Christ that He would be present when two or three persons assemble
in His names. The dynamics of Christian Communion has been philosophically
and poetically put by Cyprian[16],
the Roman Bishop of the 4th century. ``As, many grains collected
and ground and mixed together into the one mass, make one bread, so in
Christ, who is the heavenly bread, we may know that there is one body with
which each member is joined and united''. Recital of `Mirabila Dei' is
conspicuous by its absence in the Temple, and so there is no thanksgiving.
In a Church, the Christian becomes a thanking and thinking being. When
the Eucharist is celebrated, everything, from what in the morn of creation
wrote to the Parousia is recalled. This anamnesis creates fellowship in
the congregation. Louis Bouyer[17],
the Catholic theologian, rightly remarks ``everything that is announced
to us in the Liturgy is announced not only as a part of the past, but as
the one great reality of the present also, as well as the future''. Moreover,
Christian Liturgy is profoundly reciprocal as Prof. Paul W. Hoon[18]
says. This implies that Christ reveals and the Christian responds. Such
a relation is seldom seen in a Temple Worship, with its individualized
orientation. This accounts for the `weakness' of Hinduism.
Black Man burnt
And finally, the Divinity factor. As the Christian
Liturgy speaks of the presence of the Lord in the Eucharist, the Preisdent
and the Church, the Tantriks also hold that Divinity is present in the
Enlivened Image, the Officer and the Temple. To preserve the presence,
spiritual exercises like Worship are to be performed.
Tantrik Worship starts with the ritualistic
bath of the priest. It is then followed by the rite called `bhutasuddhi'.
In this rite, the priest imagines that the `Black man of sin' in his body
is burnt by the ritualistic breathing exercise called `pranayamam'. He
further fancies that he has obtained a spiritual body, a `second birth'
as it were. This ceremony is analogous to the penitential prayers, performed
in the preface to the Anaphora, and the subsequent `born again' experience.
This is followed by the beautification of the Garbagriha. This is parallel
to the church officials adoring the altar and the sanctum. Rituals like
meditation and prayers to the `Chosen Deity' which the temple priest performs
at this time, have their similarities in the `Ordo Communis' of Christian
Liturgy.
Then the sanctum part is acted, beginning
with Mudras, which are communicative symbols. Thus, for example, when the
priest shows the `Matsya Mudra' or the `fish gesture', it implies that
he is offering not only the water in the container over which his hands
are placed, but also all the water of the oceans along with fishes and
all other marine animals. The esoteric part of the Worship is then performed.
It is done in camera, after closing the door of the Sanctum. This reminds
one, of the drawing of the veil of the sanctum practised in Churches of
Eastern Christianity, just before the `fraction' ceremony starts. The Deity
is invoked to be `actively' present in the Image, as the priest invokes
the Holy Spirit to be present in the Eucharist. The Deity is then deemed
to be there, as a divine guest. Naturally the temple priest offers articles
to welcome and honour the Deity. For example, water for ablution and bath;
delicacies, like honey, milk and sweets; cloths for donning; jewels, perfumes,
flower, incenses and lighted lights as royal insignia. By the ringing of
bells and blowing of conch shells, to the accompaniment of music, the presence
of the Deity is proclaimed. Musical chants are then made. This has semblances
to the hymnody and doxology by the choir in the `Church Service'. Yes,
the Tantriks have realized the spiritual influence of music in Worship,
as had St. Augustine, who opined that he who sings while worshipping prays
twice. To mark the end of the Temple Worship, the priest prays for the
common weal, in a vein similar to the benediction at the closing of the
Eucharistic ceremony.
The food items that are offered to the Deity,
will be distributed among the devotee, as `prasad' or spiritual sustenance,
as was done in the `agape' feasts of early christianity.
Warning to Inculturation
Undoubtedly, many of the Tantrik rites and those
of Christianity intersect. As the logician would put it, we may say that
some of the Tantrik procedures are part of Christian practices and vice-versa.
But complete identification is certainly an outcry. Nor can it be expected.
For, Tantrikism has the monistic milieu, while Christianity relentlessly
maintains the hiatus between the created and the Creator. This fact has
to be accepted by the protagonists of Inculturation. Therefore, preserve
diversity, which certainly comes from the infinitesimal wisdom or Providence
of the Lord.
References
[1] Avalon, Arthur; Sakti and
Sakta, Ganesh & Co, 1998, page 42 back
[2] White, James F.; Introduction
to Christian Worship, Abingdon Press, Nashville, 1992, page 13
back
[3] Paulose Mar Gregorious, Bishop;
The
Joy of Freedom, Christian Literature Society, Kerala, 1989, page 3
back
[4] White, James F.; Introduction
to Christian Worship, Abingdon Press, ,Nashville, 1992, page 252
back
[5] Pandit, M. P., Lights on
Tantra- q.v. Sri Chakra, Samata Edn., Pondicherry, 1996, page 54
back
[6] Sri Aurobindo, Lights on
Tantra- q.v. Sri Chakra, Samata Edn., Pondicherry, 1996, Page 96
back
[7] Bandopadhyaya,P., Sahita
Journal, Bengal, July-Aug 1913 back.
[8] Sheen, F. J., The World's
First Love, Paul Browne and Nolan Ltd., Dublin, 1995, Pages 215-216
back
[9] Avalon, Arthur, Sakti and
Sakta, Ganesh \& Co, 1998, page 112 back
[10] Mahanirvana Tantra (Sanskrit)
X 105-107 back
[11] Moffet, James; Christian
Worship,Ed. Nathaniel and Miclem, 1936, Page 121 back
[12] Rig Veda, I 146-64
back
[13] Underhill, Evlyn; Worship,
Nisbel \& Co., London, 1936, Page 339 back
[14] White, James F.; Introduction
to Christian Worship, Abingdon Press, Nashville, 1992, page 72
back
[15] Florovsky, George; Worship
and Everyday Life- An Eastern Orthodox View, 1963 back
[16] Bouyer, Louis; Life and
Liturgy, Shed and Ward, London, 1989, page 2 back
[17] Cyprian, Bishop; Ante
Nicene Fathers,Ed. Charles Seribners,1988, Epistle 13-62 back
[18] Hoon, Paul W.;The Integrity
of Worship, Abingdon Press, Nashville, 1971, Page 77 back
Interesting Links
Temples of India
Hindu
Tantrik Home page
Bhagavad Gita
Author:R. A. Angiras