officially Kingdom of Norway (Nor. Kongeriket Norge), constitutional monarchy, N Europe, occupying the W and N portions of the Scandinavian Peninsula. It is bounded on the N by the Barents Sea, an arm of the Arctic Ocean, on the NE by Finland and Russia, on the E by Sweden, on the S by Skagerrak Strait and the North Sea, and on the W by the Atlantic Ocean, which in Norway is also called the Norwegian Sea. The Norwegian coastline extends about 2740 km (about 1700 mi); including all the fjords and offshore islands, the coastline totals about 21,200 km (about 13,200 mi). The passageway between the screen of offshore islands—known locally as the skerry guard—and the mainland is naturally protected. The country’s name, meaning “northern way,” reflects its importance in linking the many small fjord and valley communities that are otherwise separated by rugged mountains. Norway has an area of 323,878 sq km (125,050 sq mi).

SVALBARD, (q.v.), an archipelago, and JAN MAYEN, (q.v.), a volcanic island NE of Iceland, are possessions of Norway in the Arctic Ocean. Bouvet Island, another Norwegian possession, is an uninhabited island (50 sq km/19 sq mi) in the S Atlantic Ocean, SW of the Cape of Good Hope. Norway also claims Peter I Island, an inhabitated island (180 sq km/69 sq mi) off Antarctica, and the portion of the Antarctic continent, lying between long 20° W and 45° E, known as Queen Maud Land.

LAND AND RESOURCES

Norway is an extremely mountainous land, nearly one-third of which lies N of the Arctic Circle. Its coastline is, in proportion to its area, longer than that of any major country in the world. These geographical facts have been especially significant in the historical development of the nation.

Physiographic Regions.

Since ancient times the Norwegian people have recognized four main regions in their land: Vestlandet (West Country), Østlandet (East Country), Trøndelag (Trondheim region), and Nord Norge (North Norway). More recently, a fifth region, Sørlandet (South Country), has been recognized.

The broad bulge that constitutes the S part of Norway contains the highest parts of the Scandinavian mountain system. These mountains, which trend in a generally SW to NE direction, separate the West Country from the East Country. The mountains are a complex system of sharp and rounded peaks, called fjell, and high plateaus, called vidder. The ranges include the Dovrefjell in the N, and the Jotunheimen (“realm of the giants”) in the central region. This latter range contains Glittertinden, at 2472 m (8110 ft), the highest peak in Scandinavia. In the S is the Hardangervidda, a vast mountain plateau averaging about 1000 m (about 3300 ft) in elevation. The West Country is characterized by the steep descent of the mountains to the sea. During the Ice Age, glaciers cut deeply into former river valleys, creating a spectacular fjord landscape. One of the largest, Sognafjord, is 160 km (100 mi) long, and, in places, its rock walls rise abruptly from the sea to heights of 1000 m (3280 ft) or more. Three lowland areas contain most of the West Country’s population and agriculture: the S coast of Boknafjord, the lower parts of Hardangerfjord, and the coastal islands. These islands are formed by the strandflat, a rock shelf lying in some places just above—in others, just below—the level of the sea.

The East Country comprises the more gradual E slopes of the mountains. This is a land of valleys and rolling hills. The lower parts of the valleys, particularly around the Oslofjord, contain some of Norway’s best agricultural land. The East and West countries are connected by a number of valleys, the most important being Hallingdal. The South Country comprises the extreme S tip of Norway, the focus of which is the city of Kristiansand. It is characterized by particularly pleasant summer weather.

The Trøndelag, located N of the highest mountains, resembles the East Country, with a landscape of valleys that cut through the hills and converge on fjords. The focus of this region is the broad Trondheimsfjord, which is sheltered from the sea by peninsulas and islands. A great deal of agricultural land is located around this body of water.

North Norway is a vast region of fjords and mountains. Most of the population is settled on the strandflat coast and islands. The archipelago of the Lofoten and Vesterålen islands, Norway’s major coastal island groups, is formed by the glaciated tops of an ancient volcanic mountain range, now partially submerged. In the northernmost part of this region the fjords face the cold waters of the Arctic Ocean. From the fjord heads the land rises to the vast Finnmark, a bleak mountain plateau. This region contains some of the largest glaciers in Europe.

Rivers and Lakes.

The Glåma (Glomma) in the SE is the longest river of Norway. With its tributaries it drains about one-eighth of the country’s area. Rivers flowing in a SW direction along the steep W slope are generally short and have many rapids and falls. Those flowing SE, along the gentle E slope, are generally longer. Norway has many thousands of glacial lakes, the largest of which is Lake Mjøsa in the SE.

Climate.

The warm waters of the North Atlantic Drift (an extension of the Gulf Stream) flow along the Atlantic coast of Norway and have a pronounced moderating effect on the climate. A maritime climate prevails over most of the coastal islands and lowlands. Winters are mild and summers are normally cool. At Bergen the mean January temperature is 1.7° C (35° F), and the mean July temperature is 14.2° C (57.5° F). Moisture is plentiful the year round. The average annual precipitation on the coast is about 1780 mm (about 70 in). In the interior, a more continental climate prevails; winters are colder, and summers are warmer. At Oslo the January mean temperature is –3.5° C (25.7° F) and the July mean is 17.5° C (63.5° F). Precipitation is generally less here than on the coast, averaging less than 1015 mm (less than 40 in) annually. In the highlands of North Norway the climate is subarctic. The coastal areas of this region, however, have a moderate maritime climate, and most ports, even in the far N, are ice-free in winter.

Mineral Resources.

Norway’s principal mineral resources are petroleum and natural gas, which are extracted from the vast reserves located along the continental shelf of the North Sea. Other mineral resources include modest amounts of iron ore, copper, zinc, lead, and coal.

Plants and Animals.

Forests cover more than one-fourth of Norway’s land area. Deciduous forests are found in the coastal districts of S and SW Norway. The principal species here are oak, ash, hazel, elm, maple, and linden. In favored locations birch, yew, and evergreen holly may be found. To the E and N the forests have increasing numbers of conifers. Thick boreal coniferous forests are found in coastal regions and in the valleys of E and central Norway. These forests are dominated by Scotch pine and Norway spruce, but also contain birch, alder, aspen, and mountain ash. Wild berries, such as blueberries, cranberries, and cloudberries, grow in most woodland areas. In the far N and at high elevations are tundra regions. The tundra is a treeless heath, with vegetation consisting mainly of hardy dwarf shrubs and wildflowers.

Reindeer, polar fox, polar hare, wolf, wolverine, and lemming are common in the N and in the higher mountain areas. Elk, deer, fox, otter, and marten are found in the S and SE. Both freshwater and saltwater fish abound. Salmon, trout, grayling, perch, and pike are common in streams and lakes. Herring, cod, halibut, mackerel, and other species inhabit coastal waters.

POPULATION

The population of Norway is ethnically homogeneous. Apart from some 40,000 Samis, also known as Lapps, and people of Finnish origin in North Norway, the country has no significant minority groups.

Population Characteristics.

The population of Norway according to the 1990 census was 4,247,546; the 1994 estimate was 4,325,000. Norway has the lowest population density in continental Europe, with about 13 persons per sq km (about 35 per sq mi). The population is growing very slowly, with an annual rate of increase of only 0.4% during the early 1990s. Life expectancy in Norway is among the highest in the world, 80 years for women and 74 years for men; the infant mortality rate ranks among the lowest, 5.8 per 1000 live births. About half of the country’s population lives in the SE, and more than three-quarters of all Norwegians live within 16 km (10 mi) of the sea. Some 75% of Norway’s population is urban.

Principal Cities.

Oslo is the national capital and the principal port and industrial center. It is also the largest city, with a population (1990) of 459,292. Bergen (212,944) is the cultural center of W Norway and the nation’s second-largest city. Other important cities are the commercial center of Trondheim (137,846) and the port of Stavanger (98,109).

Language.

See NORWEGIAN LANGUAGE,. Sami language, distantly related to Finnish and classed into the FINNO-UGRIC LANGUAGES, (q.v.), is spoken by the Sami people.

Religion.

Nearly 90% of the population belongs to the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Norway. The church is supported by the state, and the clergy is nominated by the king. Complete religious freedom is guaranteed, however, and other churches, mostly Protestant and Roman Catholic, represent about 5% of the population. Religious preferences tend to be nominal.

EDUCATION AND CULTURe

The Norwegian people take a strong interest in their cultural heritage. For its relatively small population, the country has produced a disproportionately large number of internationally renowned artists. A revival of Sami culture has taking place since the early 1970s academically, professionally, and in arts and literature as well.

Education.

Compulsory education was established in Norway by the Primary School Act of 1827. Changes made since the 1960s have reduced regional disparities and increased access for all social groups to the educational system.

Education is free and compulsory in most municipalities for children between the ages of 7 and 16. Norway has almost no illiteracy. For their primary education, children attend a 6-year lower school and a 3-year upper school. Up to three years of secondary school is then available. In the early 1990s Norway had about 3350 primary schools with a combined annual enrollment of 463,900 students and some 780 secondary and vocational schools with a combined enrollment of about 243,800 students.

Norway has four universities and ten colleges of university standing, most of which are administered by the state. These and other higher educational institutions, including several music conservatories and fine arts and design colleges, have a combined yearly enrollment of more than 162,000 students. The principal university is the University of Oslo (1811); the University of Bergen was founded in 1948; the other two, Tromsø and Trondheim, were founded in 1968. These four administer the University of Svalbard (1995) in Longyearbyen, on Spitsbergen in the Svalbard archipelago. An aurora research station nearby is run by the Tromsø and Alaska universities.

Culture.

Norway has preserved a rich folk culture that retains elements from the Viking age (see VIKING ART,). Norwegians today have a great interest in preserving folk art and music. The collection of folk music is supported by the government. Modern Norwegian culture has evolved from the great flowering of the arts that occurred in the 19th century under the influence of national romanticism. Early expressions of a truly Norwegian style were produced by the painter Johan Christian Dahl (1788–1857) and the composer Edvard Grieg. Other important artists include the composer Christian Sinding (1856–1941), the painter Edvard Munch, and the sculptor Gustav Vigeland (1869–1943), whose sculpture park near Oslo has gained international attention.

Oslo is the undisputed cultural center of Norway. Bergen, Trondheim, and Stavanger are important regional centers. Performing-arts organizations include the National Theater and the National Ballet and Opera, all in Oslo; and the National Stage, in Bergen. The Oslo Philharmonic is the principal orchestra; other permanent orchestras are in Bergen and Trondheim. Since 1953 the city of Bergen, Grieg’s birthplace, has been host to an international music festival that takes place annually.

Literature.

See NORWEGIAN LITERATURE,.

Libraries and museums.

The municipal library system in Norway, begun in the early 20th century, is patterned after the U.S. model. In addition, the government maintains specialized libraries, the largest of which is the Oslo University Library (1811), with more than 3.9 million volumes, which also serves as the national library. Also located in Oslo is the important National Archives.

The country’s largest art museum is the National Gallery (1837) in Oslo. Natural history museums are located in Oslo, Stavanger, Bergen, Trondheim, and Tromsø. Many other museums display artifacts of regional and national culture; the most notable of these is the Norwegian Folk Museum (1894) in Oslo.

ECONOMY

Although the Norwegian economy is based on free enterprise, the government exercises a considerable amount of supervision and control. The country’s large merchant fleet remains of great importance to the economy. The 20th century has been a period of great industrial expansion for Norway, based primarily on extensive and inexpensive waterpower resources, but also aided by the exploitation of offshore mineral deposits. The country has one of the highest standards of living in the world; the gross national product (GNP) per capita increased considerably from about $2500 in 1964 to about $25,820 in 1992. National budget estimates for the early 1990s showed about $45.3 billion in revenue and $51.8 billion in expenditure.

Labor.

In the early 1990s Norway had a total employed labor force of 2 million, which was distributed among the various economic sectors as follows: agriculture, forestry, and fishing, 5.5%; mining and manufacturing, 16%; construction and utilities, 7.1%; services, 45.8%; trade and tourism, 17.6%; and transportation and communications, 7.8%. About two-thirds of the labor force is organized. The Norwegian Federation of Trade Unions comprises 28 national unions with a total of about 780,000 members.

Agriculture.

Agriculture accounts for about 3% of the annual Norwegian domestic product. Because of the mountainous terrain and poor soils, less than 3% of the total land area is cultivated. Grains are grown in the East Country and the Trøndelag. The West Country and North Norway specialize in livestock raising and dairy farming. The leading crops in the early 1990s (with their annual production in metric tons) were barley (428,000), oats (294,000), potatoes (450,000), and wheat (175,000). In the same period the country had 2.2 million sheep, 1 million cattle, and 749,000 hogs. Norway is self-sufficient in many agricultural products; grains, fruits, and vegetables, however, must be imported.

Forestry.

The Norwegian forestry industry accounts for a relatively small proportion of Norway’s yearly GNP and of the country’s annual exports. Forestry is concentrated in the East and South countries, where 60% of the productive forestland is located. Most forestland is owned by private individuals; state ownership is important only in North Norway. In the early 1990s annual timber production totaled about 11 million cu m (about 388 million cu ft), most of which was softwood.

Fishing.

The fishing industry produces less than 1% of the yearly GNP. Nonetheless, Norway ranks as one of the leading fishing nations in the world, accounting for more than 2% of the world’s total catch. The total yearly marine catch in the early 1990s was about 2.1 million metric tons. Important species caught include cod, blue whiting, capelin, salmon, saithe, pout, mackerel, and herring. Fish farming, mainly of salmon and seatrout, is of increasing importance.

More than 14,000 seals were caught annually in Norway in the early 1990s. Commercial whaling, suspended under international pressure in the late 1980s, was resumed in 1993.

Mining.

Before offshore drilling for petroleum began in the 1970s, mining was relatively unimportant in Norway. This sector now accounts for up to 15% of the gross domestic product (GDP); the percentage in any given year depends on world petroleum prices. Petroleum production began on a trial basis in 1971. In 1974 a pipeline was completed to carry crude oil to Teesside, England. By the early 1990s, the annual crude petroleum production was 712.4 million barrels; natural-gas production was 27.4 billion cu m (968 billion cu ft). Natural gas is piped to both Scotland and Germany. Other mineral products included iron ore (metal content, 2.2 million metric tons), coal (339,000), copper (36,000), zinc (29,000), and lead (3200). The largest iron mines are located at Sydvaranger near the border with Russia. All the coal is mined in the Svalbard archipelago.

Manufacturing.

Enterprises engaged in manufacturing account for about 14% of the yearly GDP of Norway. The electrochemical and electrometallurgical industries form the most important sector of manufacturing. These industries need an abundance of inexpensive electrical power, which Norway can supply. Although all raw materials for the country’s aluminum industry must be imported, Norway produces more than 4% of the world’s supply of refined aluminum. It is also an important producer of ferroalloys.

Norway has traditionally been a major shipbuilding nation, but its share of the world’s new tonnage declined dramatically in the late 1970s, as the industry encountered financial problems. Many shipyards have since shifted some of their capacity to the production of equipment for the oil and gas fields. Other major manufactures include machinery, pulp and paper products, textiles, and confections. The country has several petroleum refineries and a major integrated iron and steel plant at Mo, which is situated near the Arctic Circle.

Energy.

Annual electricity production in Norway in the late 1990s was about 112 billion kwh, nearly all of which was generated by waterpower stations. Norway is one of the world’s leading producers of hydroelectricity. In order to make up for a shortfall in electrical supplies, the Norwegian parliament agreed in early 2000 to ease pollution laws and authorize construction of power plants fueled by natural gas.

Currency and Banking.

The basic monetary unit of Norway is the krone (6.7685 kroner equal U.S.$1; 1995). The krone is divided into 100 øre. The central bank is the Bank of Norway (est. 1816), which is the sole bank of issue. Norway also has some 135 savings banks and 20 commercial banks.

Foreign Trade.

The composition and direction of Norwegian export trade changed dramatically in the 1970s with the development of North Sea petroleum and natural-gas reserves. Norway is now Europe’s largest exporter of these two products, which together normally account for between one-third and one-half of the country’s total annual exports. Other major exports include machinery, aluminum, iron and steel, chemicals, pulp and paper products, and food products consisting mostly of fish. Imports include machinery and transport equipment, petroleum products, chemicals, clothing and footwear, and ores. In the early 1990s annual exports were valued at about $35.2 billion and imports at $25.9 billion. The three most important trading partners were Great Britain (which takes about 25% of all exports), Sweden, and Germany. Other important trade partners include Denmark and the Netherlands.        J.G.R., JOHN G. RICE, M.A., Fil. lic.

Transportation.

Building roads and railroads is difficult and expensive because of Norway’s rugged terrain, and in much of the country water traffic is still important. Norway is served by a road network of about 90,500 km (about 56,230 mi), 70% of which is paved. The road network is most dense in the East Country. Railroads are almost entirely state operated and have a total length of 4043 km (2512 mi), about 60% of which is electrified. Coastal transport, of both passengers and freight, is especially important in the West Country, the Trøndelag, and North Norway. The coastal towns of Bergen (in the SW) and Kirkenes (near the Russian border) are linked by daily boat service. The city of Oslo is the country’s principal port. The Norwegian merchant marine, with more than 1780 vessels, is one of the largest fleets in the world. It is an important source of foreign exchange earnings as well. Norway’s domestic air service is also well developed. The country has 57 airports, with the main international airport at Oslo.

Communications.

Norway has a sophisticated telecommunications network. In the late 1990s the country had 2.9 million main telephone lines, 2.1 million cellular telephone subscribers, 1.7 million personal computers, 1 million INTERNET, (q.v.) users, and 2.6 million televisions. Radio and television broadcasting is provided through an autonomous public corporation; private commercial stations started broadcasting in the early 1990s. More than 60 daily newspapers are published in Norway, with a combined circulation of almost 2.2 million.

GOVERNMENT

Norway is a constitutional, hereditary monarchy. The constitution was enacted on May 17, 1814. Although this document has been amended many times, the principal features have remained unchanged.

Executive.

Executive power is vested in the king. The king’s powers, however, are nominal, and administrative duties are carried out by the cabinet of ministers, which is headed by the prime minister. The king makes all governmental appointments on the recommendation of the party in power.

Legislature.

Legislative authority is vested in the parliament, called the Storting. It consists of 165 members popularly elected every four years, and it may not be dissolved by the executive. The Storting elects one-quarter of its members to an upper house, the Lagting; the remainder constitute the lower house, the Odelsting. Since 1989 the Sami people have elected 39 representatives for 4-year terms to the Sami parliament, an advisory body on matters concerning their language, culture, and social and economic situation. It sits in the city of Karasjok and meets for a week four times a year.

Judiciary.

Norway’s highest court is the supreme court, or Høyesterett. Below this are five (regional) high courts, which hear both civil and criminal cases. In addition, conciliation courts handle civil suits, and district and town courts hear criminal cases. Except in the case of conciliation courts, whose board members are locally elected, all judges are appointed by the king.

Local Government.

Norway is divided into 19 counties (fylker). The counties are divided into about 450 rural and urban municipalities, each of which has a governing council, elected every four years.

Political Parties.

The Labor party is the strongest party and has governed almost continuously since 1935, except for periods when a Conservative-led coalition (1981–86; 1989–90) or a centrist bloc (1997–2000) held power. The Labor program calls for a planned economy and the nationalization of major industries. Other leading political groups in the late 1990s included the Center party, which favors agrarian interests; the Conservative party, which advocates free enterprise; the Progress party, a right-wing group that supports privatization of the social welfare system; and the Christian Democrats. Minority parties include the Socialist Left party, the Liberal party, the Coastal party, and the Red Electoral Alliance.

Health and Welfare.

Health insurance is mandatory for all, with the state, the employer, and the individual all contributing to the health fund. All medical care in the country is free. In the mid-1990s Norway had 1 doctor for every 299 inhabitants. A compulsory National Pension Scheme that was put into effect in 1967 provides old-age, disability, rehabilitation, widow, widower, and other benefits.

Defense.

The king of Norway is commander in chief of the armed forces, which in the early 1990s totaled some 29,400 members in the army, navy, and air force. A 12- to 15-month military term is compulsory for all male citizens when they reach the age of 19. A home guard of about 85,000 serves local areas. The defense of Norway is bound up with the NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION (q.v.; NATO), which the country joined in 1949.

International Organizations.

In addition to NATO, Norway is a member of the UNITED NATIONS (UN), the EUROPEAN FREE TRADE ASSOCIATION, the NORDIC COUNCIL,, the ORGANIZATION FOR ECONOMIC COOPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT, the ORGANIZATION FOR SECURITY AND COOPERATION IN EUROPE,, the WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION (qq.v.), and the Council of Europe (see EUROPE, COUNCIL OF,).

HISTORY

According to archaeological research, Norway was inhabited as early as 14,000 years ago by a hunting people with a paleolithic culture derived from western and central Europe. Later, colonies of farming people from Denmark and Sweden were established in the region. These settlers spoke a Germanic language that became the mother tongue of the later Scandinavian languages. These new arrivals made their homes on the shores of the large lakes and along the jagged coast. Mountains and fjords formed natural boundaries around most of the settled areas. Social life in the separate settlements came to be dominated by an aristocracy and, eventually, by petty kings. By the time of the first historical records of Scandinavia, about the 8th century ad, some 29 small kingdoms existed in Norway.

The Viking Period.

Inevitably, the kings turned their attention to the sea, the easiest way of communication with the outside world. Ships of war were built and sent on raiding expeditions, initiating the era of the VIKINGS, (q.v.). The northern sea rovers were traders, colonizers, and explorers as well as plunderers. During the 9th century they settled in Ireland, Britain, and Iceland and in the Orkney, Faeroe, and Shetland islands. About a century later Greenland was settled from Iceland. Bands of the northern Vikings penetrated Russia, where their influence on the Russian state is still the subject of scholarly debate and research. Others settled in France, where they became the ancestors of the Normans of Normandy.

In the 9th century the first successful attempt to form a united Norwegian kingdom was made by King Harold I, called the Fairhaired, of Vestfold (southeast Norway). Succeeding to the throne of Vestfold as a child (c. 860) Harold managed to establish his supremacy over all Norway shortly before 900, but at his death (c. 933) his sons divided Norway, with Eric Bloodaxe (895?–954) as overking. Dissensions and wars among the heirs disrupted the temporary unity, and many of the petty rulers refused to surrender their independence. In addition to the domestic struggles, Danish and Swedish kings were attempting to acquire Norwegian territory.

Christianity Introduced.

In 995 Olaf I, a great-grandson of Harold I, became king. Before his accession to the throne Olaf had lived in England, where he had been converted to Christianity. He took the throne with the unwavering purpose of forcing Christianity on Norway and was partially successful. Five years after his accession he quarreled with King Sweyn I of Denmark and was killed in battle. Norway was divided for a short time but the country was reunited by Olaf II, who made himself king of Norway in 1015. He continued the religious work of his predecessor, using the sword against all who refused to be baptized. By about 1025 Olaf was more powerful than any previous Norwegian king had been. He aroused the enmity of the powerful nobles, who, together with Canute II (the Great), king of England and Denmark, in 1028 drove Olaf into exile in Russia. Two years later Olaf returned and was killed in battle. After his death Olaf was canonized as Norway’s patron saint.

Native Kings.

On the death of Canute in 1035, Olaf’s son, Magnus I, was called from Russia by partisans of his father. He became king and then united Denmark and Norway under his rule. For the next three centuries a succession of native kings ruled Norway. Although internal confusion and wars between rival claimants to the throne disrupted the country intermittently, Norway began to emerge as a united nation, enjoying a comparative prosperity brought by its great trading fleets. The Norwegians had become strongly Christian, and a powerful clergy was one of the strongest influences in the kingdom. In 1046 Magnus made his uncle Harold Hårdråde coruler. At the death of Magnus one year later, Harold became king as Harold III; he was killed while participating in the invasion of England in 1066. The last king of the line of Harold III was Sigurd I (c. 1090–1130), whose rule lasted from 1103 until his death.

Dynastic conflict followed the death of Sigurd. Of the many later kings, the most notable was Sverre (1152?–1202), king from 1184 to 1202. A statesman of great ability, Sverre built a strong monarchy and considerably weakened the power of the clergy and the great nobles. Under Håkon IV (r. 1217–63) Norway reached the apex of its medieval prosperity and political and cultural power. Iceland was added to the kingdom in 1262, and royal authority was greatly increased by Håkon and his son, Magnus VI; the landed aristocracy was virtually crushed by Håkon V (1270–1319). After that the old aristocratic families gradually declined in the region, and for the most part the Norwegian people became a nation of peasants. Commercial activity was usurped by the increasingly powerful Hanseatic League.

The death of Håkon V in 1319, without male heirs, gave the throne to King Magnus II of Sweden, the three-year-old son of Håkon’s daughter. In 1343 Magnus was succeeded by his son, Håkon VI (1339–80), and in 1380 the latter’s son, Olaf II (1370–87), king of Denmark, became king of Norway as Olaf IV. The young king exercised only nominal rule, the power being in the hands of his mother, Margaret I. When he died, he was succeeded by his mother as ruler of Norway and Denmark and, in 1389, of Sweden also. To obtain German support against the dukes of Mecklenburg, who claimed the Swedish throne, Margaret had her grandnephew, Eric of Pomerania (1382–1459), elected king.

Union with Denmark and Sweden.

By the Union of Kalmar in 1397, the three kingdoms were made a single administrative unit. Norwegian prosperity and culture declined steadily after the union. Moreover, the plague, called the Black Death, had swept Norway in the 14th century, decimating the population of the country. Sweden and Denmark were larger and wealthier than Norway, which the Scandinavian kings, for the most part, neglected. During the subsequent four centuries Norway remained stagnant under the arbitrary rule of Danish officials.

The Napoleonic Wars at the beginning of the 19th century finally occasioned the end of the union. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1814, Denmark, an ally of France, was compelled to sign the Treaty of Kiel, ceding Norway to the king of Sweden. The Norwegians, however, disavowed the treaty. They declared themselves an independent kingdom, drew up a liberal constitution, and offered the Crown to the Danish crown prince Christian Frederick (later Christian VIII). The Norwegian move was disapproved by the European powers, and, at the head of an army, Marshal Jean Bernadotte, later King Charles XIV John, persuaded Norway to accept the Treaty of Kiel. In return for this acceptance, Norway was allowed to retain the newly promulgated constitution. By the Act of Union of 1815, Norway was given its own army, navy, customs, and legislature and permitted full liberty and autonomy within its own boundaries.

Second Union with Sweden.

After 1814, the Norwegian Storting, or legislature, was chiefly occupied with stabilizing and improving the financial condition of Norway and in implementing and guarding its newly won self-government. Despite the bitter opposition of Charles XIV John, an autocratic monarch, the Norwegian legislature passed a law in 1821 abolishing the Danish-created peerage. The Storting held that the true Norwegian nobles were the peasant descendants of the medieval barons. Norwegian nationalism increased, and the Storting complained that Swedish treatment of Norway was not consistent with the spirit of the Act of Union and with the status of Norway as a coequal state. At length, in 1839, Charles XIV John appointed a joint committee of Swedes and Norwegians to revise the wording of the Act of Union. King Charles died in 1844, before the committee submitted its report; his son, Oscar I, admitted the justice of many Norwegian claims and made himself popular by granting Norway a national flag for its navy, although the flag bore the symbol of union with Sweden.

Ascendant Nationalism.

The liberal movement in Norwegian politics, accompanying the surge of nationalism, became more pronounced after the revolutions of 1848 in the major countries of Europe. Political nationalism was bolstered by intellectual and cultural nationalism. Norwegian folktales and folk songs were collected and arranged and became extremely popular. Norwegian dictionaries, histories, and grammars were compiled. The literary renaissance included such writers as Henrik Ibsen, Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, Jonas Lie (1833–1908), and Alexander Kielland (1849–1906).

When, in 1860, Sweden began to propose revisions in the Act of Union designed to give the ruling country additional powers, the two greatest Norwegian political parties, the Lawyers party and the Peasant party, combined to form the liberal Venstre (“Left”) party and blocked the revisions. Another significant controversy between the two countries was occasioned by renewed Swedish attempts at constitutional revision, including establishment of the royal right to dissolve the Storting. Led by Johan Sverdrup (1816–92), president of the Storting, the Norwegian legislature engaged in a long struggle with King Oscar II. Oscar was forced to yield in 1884. Norwegian policy then centered on demands for a separate consular service and a Norwegian flag for the merchant marine without the symbol of union. The flag was approved by Sweden in 1898, but Sweden balked at the demand for a consular service. In 1905, after protracted negotiations, the Norwegian ministry then in office resigned and subsequently refused Oscar’s request that they withdraw their resignations. As a result the Storting declared that Oscar was no longer ruler of Norway and proclaimed the country an independent kingdom. In a plebiscite in August 1905 the Norwegian people voted overwhelmingly for separation from Sweden. The Swedish Riksdag ratified the separation in October. A month later Prince Carl of Denmark accepted the Norwegian crown as Håkon VII.

Independence.

The Norwegian government, dominated by ministers with liberal politics, became one of the most advanced in Europe in matters such as unemployment insurance benefits, old-age pensions, and liberal laws concerning divorce and illegitimacy. In 1913 Norwegian women were given the right to vote in all national elections.

After the beginning of World War I in 1914 the sovereigns of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark agreed to maintain the neutrality of the Scandinavian countries and to cooperate for their mutual interest. The policy of neutrality and friendship thus established continued to be the joint policy of all three nations after the war ended. The world economic depression that began in 1929 affected Norway considerably because of its dependence on commerce. The Labor party was elected to power in 1935 and continued the policies of moderation and political liberalism that had dominated Norwegian politics since 1905.

Norway maintained its traditional neutrality when World War II began in 1939. Despite sympathy for Finland during the Russo-Finnish phase of the conflict, Norway rejected an Anglo-French demand for transit of troops to aid Finland. German maritime warfare along the Norwegian coast, however, made neutrality increasingly difficult. On April 8, 1940, Great Britain and France announced that they had mined Norwegian territorial waters to prevent their use by German supply ships. The next day German forces invaded Norway.

Assisted by the Nasjonal Samling (National Union) party and disloyal Norwegian army officers, the Germans attacked all important ports. Vidkun Quisling, head of the Nasjonal Samling, proclaimed himself head of the Norwegian government. King Håkon and his cabinet, after an unsuccessful attempt at resistance, withdrew to Great Britain in June. For five years thereafter, London was the seat of the Norwegian government-in-exile. Political leaders in Norway refused to cooperate in any way with Josef Terboven (1898–1945), the German commissioner. In September Terboven dissolved all political parties except the Nasjonal Samling, set up a so-called National Council composed of the party members and other German sympathizers, and announced the abolition of the monarchy and the Storting. These and other still more repressive measures of the Germans and their puppet government, headed by Quisling, were met with mass resistance by the Norwegian people. Quisling proclaimed martial law in September 1941 because of large-scale sabotage and espionage on behalf of the Allies.

The leaders of the Resistance in Norway cooperated closely with the government-in-exile in London, preparing for eventual liberation. The German forces in Norway finally surrendered on May 8, 1945, and King Håkon returned to Norway in June. To punish traitors, the death penalty, abolished in 1876, was restored. Quisling, along with some 25 other Norwegians, was tried and executed for treason.

Labor Governments.

The government-in-exile resigned after temporary order was established. In the general elections of October 1945, the Labor party won a majority of votes, and a labor cabinet was headed by Einar Gerhardsen (1897–1987). The party remained in power for the next 20 years. Under its stewardship, Norway became a charter member of the UN in 1945, participated in the European Recovery Program in 1947, and joined NATO in 1949. The NATO membership, by which the country abandoned its traditional neutrality, was tacitly approved by the Norwegian people in the elections of October 1949.

The Norwegian economy came out of the war badly damaged, both by ruthless German exploitation and by domestic sabotage. Reconstruction, however, began at once, directed by the Labor government, which soon took over the planning of the entire economy, reinforcing the country’s position in international markets and redistributing the national wealth along more egalitarian lines. Within three years, the Norwegian gross national product had reached its prewar level. This development was accompanied by new social legislation that greatly increased the welfare of the citizens. In 1959 Norway became one of the founding members of the European Free Trade Association.

Political Shifts.

The parliamentary elections held in September 1961 resulted in the failure of the Labor party for the first time since World War II to win a majority of seats, although it kept its place as the leading party. Gerhardsen, who had been prime minister since the end of the war, except for an interval in 1951–55, was designated once again to head the cabinet. In 1965 the Labor party was defeated in general elections, ending a 30-year rule. King Olaf V, who had succeeded Håkon VII on the latter’s death in 1957, then asked Per Borten (1913–    ), leader of the Center party, to form a government. He headed a coalition of nonsocialist parties. Economic policies, however, did not markedly change.

In 1970 Norway applied for membership in the European Economic Community, or EEC, a move that gave rise to increasing dissension within the government. Early in the following year Borten resigned after charges were made that he had divulged confidential information. Trygve Bratteli (1910–84) of the Labor party then formed a minority government that campaigned strongly for EEC membership. In a referendum in 1972, however, the voters vetoed the government’s recommendation. As a result, the government resigned and was succeeded by a centrist coalition headed by Lars Korvald (1916–    ) of the Christian People’s party. In May 1973 Norway signed a free-trade agreement with the EEC. Labor suffered considerable losses in the 1973 elections, but Bratteli again was able to form a minority government.

Bratteli resigned in January 1976, but the party remained in power until the elections of September 1981, headed from February to October by Gro Harlem Brundtland (1939–    ), Norway’s first woman prime minister. The nonsocialist parties gained a comfortable majority in September, and Kåre Willoch (1928–    ) of the Conservative party formed a coalition government in October. A broader coalition government, again headed by Willoch, was formed in 1983 and was reelected in 1985.

The country’s economic prospects brightened considerably in the late 1960s, when oil and gas deposits were discovered in the Norwegian sector of the North Sea; exploitation by a state company began in the ’70s. Oil from the North Sea fields accounted for approximately 30 percent of Norway’s annual export earnings in the early 1980s. Oil prices dropped abruptly in 1985 and 1986, and the prospect of lower tax revenues and reduced export earnings led the Willoch government to call for higher gasoline taxes in April 1986. He lost a vote of confidence on the issue and was succeeded by a minority Labor government led by Brundtland in May. Brundtland resigned after inconclusive elections in September 1989, and Jan Syse (1930–97) of the Conservative party became prime minister, heading a minority center-right coalition.

Recent Developments.

When Syse’s government fell apart in October 1990 because of divisions over European policy, Brundtland returned to power. King Olaf V died in January 1991 and was succeeded by his son, Harald V (1937–    ). Brundtland remained in office after the elections of September 1993. Voters dealt her government a blow in November 1994 by rejecting Norwegian membership in the EUROPEAN UNION (q.v.), the successor to the EEC. When she resigned in October 1996, Thorbjørn Jagland (1950–    ) became prime minister. Following a disappointing performance by the Labor party in the parliamentary elections of September 1997, Jagland stepped down, and Kjell Magne Bondevik (1947–    ), a Christian Democrat, became prime minister as head of a minority centrist coalition. Bondevik resigned after losing a vote of confidence in March 2000, and a minority Labor government took office with Jens Stoltenberg (1959–    ) as prime minister.

For further information on this topic, see the Bibliography, sections 843. Scandinavian literature, 985. Scandinavia, 986. Vikings, 987. Norway.