INTRODUCTION
Volumes have been written regarding the church and its history. This essay serves as an overview of the development of structure and power of the church. While there is an early division between Greek speaking and Latin speaking congregations, this essay focuses primarily on the Latin (also known as the Western church, and later on as the Roman Catholic Church). This arm of Christianity is relevant to our interests in the Medieval time and Crusades, but also because the Protestant movement came about as a result of the unethical and immoral practices of the Roman Catholic church.
EARLY CHURCH
The Early church included the beginning of the church, from the outpouring of the Holy Spirit on the Day of Pentecost, until the rise of the ideas of Gnosticism. This time period is roughly 33 AD until 150AD.
In his travels, Paul shared the gospel not only with Jews, but also Gentiles. This, in itself, was now a great issue, but formed the foundation for the first large hurdle the early church must overcome. Many among the early church felt the Gentiles converts must be circumcised and adhere to strict eating habits outlined in orthodox Judaism. If the Gospel of Christ was to become more than a sect of Judaism, it would need to transcend the bounds of the Judaism. If a solution to this conflict could not be discovered, then the Gospel of Christ could at worst sink to obscurity, or at best remain strictly a Jewish religion. This conflict between Jews, who spoke Latin (they were occupied by the Romans), and the Gentiles, who spoke mainly Greek, forms the basis for on going division in the church. The church of Rome became the Western Church, and the Greek speaking congregations formed the Eastern Church.
The city of Jerusalem was destroyed in 70 AD. This significant in that the center of Christianity moved from Jerusalem to Antioch, Rome and Ephesus.
IGNATIUS & APOSTOLIC FATHERS
Apostolic Fathers include Clement of Rome, Ignatius of Antioch, Polycarp of Smyrna, Hermas of Rome, and “Barnabas” (possibly in Alexandria). To this body of men should be added the anonymous sermon called Second Clement.
The Apostolic Fathers are known thus because it was erroneously thought for many years that these men were personal disciples of Apostles. These men held to and developed several significant lines of thought that would shape the development of the church for centuries.
Ignatius of Antioch put forth the belief that the incarnation was the manifestation of God for the revelation of a new humanity. Before Christ, the world was under the devil and death. Christ brought life and immortality. This thought, which has obvious roots in Paul’s teaching, was later developed in Syria and Asia Minor. This was the conception of salvation in the Greek speaking churches (Gentile churches).
The Latin (Jewish church) concept was that salvation consists of having a right relationship established with God, and the forgiveness of sins. While both the Latin and Greek concepts have their origins in Paul’s theology, this difference in emphasis added fuel to the growing conflict that eventually led to the contrast of theological development between the East (Greek) and West (Rome, or Latin). These two factions are known today as the Roman Catholic Church and the Greek Orthodox Church.
CHURCH ORGANIZATION
It is probable that offices within the church developed diversely, according to needs of the area. Not all early Christians congregations had identical instructions at the same time. However, a substantial similarity was reached by the middle of the second century.
Tracing the development of church offices is difficult, due to scant evidence. Jewish congregations had presbyters or “elders” in the churches that Paul established. Scripture gives a hint as to the organization of some congregations when it mentions the election of deacons to wait tables.
The earliest Gentile churches had no officers in the strict sense. Paul makes no mention of local officers in letters to Galatia, Corinth and Rome. Paul looked upon ministries within the church as direct gifts of the Spirit. People exercised their gift, as given by the Sprit, and took the responsibility of leadership that came with said gift. In Ephesians, one of his last letters, Paul speaks of the “bishops and deacons” of the church. Literally, of “those who oversee and those who serve”. This could be held to mean an advance beyond simpler concepts of leadership authority.
The “Teaching of the Twelve Apostles,” a document dated after Paul’s death, shows that self-seeking and fraudulent claimants to divine guidance were soon preying on the churches. The document then directs, “Appoint for yourselves, therefore, bishops and deacons worthy of the Lord, men who are meek and not lovers of money, and true and approved; for unto you they also perform the service of the prophets and teachers. Therefore despise them not; for they are your honorable men along with the prophets and teachers.” At Philippi, Ephesus, and in the Teaching, “bishops” are spoken of in the plural. This is also true of Rome and of Corinth when Clement of Rome wrote in 93-97. In the second century, bishops, presbyters and deacons are all mentioned by the Apostolic Fathers, and are assumed to be common offices within the established church. The terms “bishop” and “presbyter” were used interchangeably, although the precise definition of the term “presbyter” is difficult to distinguish. It is evident, however, that till some time after the year100, Rome, Greece and Macedonia had at the head of each congregation a group of bishops, or presbyter-bishops, with a number of deacons as their helpers. These were chosen by the whole church, or at least ratified by the congregation.
How the monarchial bishopric arose is a matter of conjecture. Clement of Rome (93-97), writing when Rome had as yet no monarchial bishop, traces the existence of church officers to apostolic succession. He apparently bases this on a misunderstanding of Paul’s statement in I Corinthians 16:15 & 16. It was the union of the principles of a monarchical bishop and apostolic succession that enhanced the dignity and power of the bishopric. By 160, monarchial bishops had become almost universal.
From early in the formation of the church until well into the third and fourth centuries, Christianity was outlawed. Christians were charged with cannibalism, atheism and anarchy. To answer these charges and also to deflect the hostile attitude of the Roman government, a number of literary defenders arose. These writers are known as the Apologists, and include Quadratus of Athens (125), Aristides (140), Justin Martyr (153), Tatian, Melito of Sardis (approx. 169-180) and Arthenagoras (177). These men wrote documents in defense of Christianity, addressing these defenses to Roman rulers. Several of the Apologists were from the ranks of the philosophers, and their interpretation aided in the development of theology.
GNOSTICISM
Gnosticism is a belief that pre-dates Christianity. When applied to Christianity, it denies the humanity and death of Christ. Gnosticism viewed the sprit as good, and matter or material things as Evil. Gnosticism is based upon a mystical, supernatural wisdom, by which a person could gain understanding of the universe, and be saved from this evil world of matter. The influence of this thought reached a pinnacle between 135 and 160. One aspect of Gnosticism states that Christ had not come “in the flesh,” but in the spiritual, ghost-like form. While He did appear and teach His disciples, it was as a heavenly being, not one of evil matter, not one of flesh and blood. Another vein of Gnosticism says that Christ came as a temporary indwelling of the man Jesus. These views stem from the thought that matter was evil. God, therefore, would not become matter. Gnosticism was the second major theological hurdle of the new church. It borrowed liberally from Paul’s writings to prove it’s points. The church was venerable to this doctrine because it had no developed hierarchy and because Gnosticism was extremely sycretistic.
It was the struggles against Gnosticism and Montanism that consolidated the structure and beliefs of the church.
OFFICE OF THE BISHOP
By 100, Rome was the single largest congregation in Christendom. Here, the creed and canon were both formed. Those in Rome found their thoughts expressed best by Irenaeus, when he wrote, “it is a matter of necessity that every church should agree with this church”. His idea, however, was that the church in Rome should be a leader in the preservation of the apostolic faith, not necessarily in judicial supremacy. The churches at Rome and Asia Minor conflicted on the celebration of Easter. About 190, the problem had escalated to the point that conferences, or synods, were called in Rome, Palestine and elsewhere. These synods decided in favor of the Roman practice. The churches of Asia Minor, led by Polycrates, bishop of Ephesus, refused to conform. Therefore, Victor, bishop of Rome (189-198) excommunicated those congregations in Asia Minor were no longer able to engage as equals in a struggle for theological or political dominance with Rome.By the last third of the century, it was calling itself the “Catholic” Church. The word “Catholic” is first used of the church by Ignatius, who used it in the sense of “universal,” as opposed to particular. It’s use as a descriptor became common, in a way that it could be replaced with the word “orthodox.” This Catholic Church Developed its distinguishing characteristics between 160 and 190. The relatively independent congregations were knit into an effective union. The power of the bishops were greatly strengthened, a collection of authoritative New Testament Scripture recognized, and a creed formulated.
Irenaeus, in defense against the Gnostics, wrote that the Apostles had entrusted the Church with their knowledge of the truth. Most especially, this knowledge resided with the “success of the episcopate.” In other words, with the heads of the churches. To agree with the bishops is therefore a necessity. This teaching was not from Irenaeus, alone. In fact, it was generally the teaching of the leaders of the Catholic Church. In this defense, Irenaeus also planted the beginnings of the Exaltation of Mary. He called her the “Second Eve,” pointing out that the results of Eve’s disbelief and sin were mitigated by Mary’s belief and obedience.
Cyprian, another writer, developed the offices and authority of the Catholic Church even further than Irenaeus. It was Cyprian who penned the thought that, “there is no salvation out of the church.” He exalted the bishop’s office (the episcopate) as being “founded upon the rock by the word of the Lord.”
Due to struggles with heresy, the office of the bishop was further strengthened between 200 and 260. This was in response to Montanism, a heretical theology named after Montanus. He proclaimed himself the passive instrument through whom the Holy Spirit had come, and the new Jerusalem was to be established in Phygia. Montanism was very “ecstatic” sect. Therefore, the legitimate operation of the gifts of the Spirit were regarded with suspicion. The gifts of the Spirit, which were, during the apostolic age and following, possessed by anyone, were now said to be the official possession of the clergy, especially the bishops. The bishops were now the divinely appointed guardians of the deposit of faith, and therefore those who could determine heresy. At this time, the ministry was evolving into a priesthood.
The office of Bishop carried with it responsibility to oversee all congregations within on particular city. Later, as Christianity spread to more rural areas, the office of the Bishop, the Episcopate, expanded to include these new congregations. Notable is that Asia Minor, again, had a separate method for dealing with this growth. However, it was neither widespread, nor well accepted in other areas.
While all episcopates were to be equal, those bishops who presided over cities whose political power was greater attained a superior dignity over others. Rome was the greatest of cities at this time, therefore the Bishop of Rome was in one sense “first among equals.”
By 200, the clergy was sharply distinguished from the laity. The church came to be perceived as possessing life-giving mysteries, under the superintendence and dispensation of the clergy. Marriage after entering into office as clergy was not allowed.
By 250, the higher ranking clergy were expected to engage in full-time ministry, although some were involved in secular business. Lower ranking clergy could still engage in trade. Laymen were, at this time, highly dependent upon the clergy, and supported them with gifts.
In 312, the conqueror Constantine reportedly had a dream, “By this sign you will conquer,” and the initial letters of the name of Christ with words. He hastily had the monogram painted on his helmet and the shield of his soldiers.
October 28, 312, Constantine defeated Maxentius in battle. The West was Constantine’s. The Christian God, he believed, had given him the victory. However, he retained the title Pontfex Maximus, and heathen symbols remained on the coins. In 313, Constantine met Licinius at Milan, and they agreed to the “Edict of Milan,” which permitted the full freedom of Christianity. This was the first time since the early church that Christianity was legalized. It was not, however, the “official” religion of the empire.
The papacy (office of the Roman Catholic Pope) is traced by the Catholic Church from the Apostle Peter, although all dates of terms of office are uncertain until 189 AD, with Victor I. Some men claimed as Pope by the Roman Catholic church did not, in fact, claim this title for themselves. In fact, the term “pope” did not exclusively designate the heads of the Roman Catholic church until the 9th century at the earliest.
Constantine’s two sons, Constantuis and Constans, ruled after his death. Each was deeply concerned with religious matters. As a result, each used political authority to influence church matters. During this time, under Julius I (337-352), the Roman papacy for the first time became a truly national figure through a political Victory.
From the late 4th century and into the 5th, civic leaders were often unable or unwilling to act against barbarian invasions and other threats. The pope had the resources and ability to act on behalf of the people. Each act of protection served to exalt the position and strength of Rome’s pope.
From the time of Julius I (337-352) until well into the 6th century, the pope battle with factions within Christendom. Various churches at diverse time sought to establish independence from Roman pope. In each instance, the pope asserted that the see of Saint Peter was the fount of all spiritual authority.
MONASTICISM
Patrick, a monk with an evangelistic vision, went to Ireland in 432. there, he established monasteries to preserve and spread the faith. These monasteries, as others in the West, were based on the oriental ideal of asceticism. This trend can be seen repeatedly, where Godly men of vision hold to Scriptural values, despite political pressure and circumstances in other offices.
Later, Benedict would alter the concept of the monastery. Instead of encouraging men to be hermits and perform acts of masceration of the flesh, he encouraged men to live together in community and under strict discipline. To the vows of poverty, chastity and obedience he added the stability of community. Life was austere, but not to the point of being ascetic. The purpose of the monastery was not to provide comfort, but to honor God by praise, and to benefit the monastic community by prayer.
Benedictine monasticism was designed neither for missionary work nor for promotion of scholarship, although eventually it made enormous contributions to both. Monasteries became outposts of Christian civilization whose influence spread to the surrounding heathen territory.
Over the centuries following the collapse of the Western roman Empire, when other educational institutions had vanished with the barbarian intrusions and urban culture had died away, it was the monasteries that kept alive the classical traditions as well as the propagation of Christianity.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE PAPACY
Pope Leo I (40-461) worked out a theory of papal monarchy. He established that the powers conferred upon Saint Peter by Christ, Himself, were automatically handed down to the Apostle’s successors and all future Bishops of Rome. Leo I claimed the Pope to be infallible in the exercise of his office, and impervious to outside judgment in this area.
With the fall of Rome to the Goths in 410, the people suffered greatly. Free bread was no longer available. The aqueducts were severed. Some formerly dry lands were swamped by this action. Disease began to run rampant. Even the emperor at Constantinople could not afford to hire grain ships from Africa or the islands. Into this arena stepped the current Bishop of Rome, Gregory I. He is commonly referred to as Gregory the Great.
Pope Gregory the Great (590-604) is the first Pope of whom more that scant knowledge remains. Due to the Lombard invasion of Italy, and attention of the armies with other threats, Gregory found himself defending Rome and Naples from military attack. He was acting civil and military governor of the area. He also took on the role of diplomat. While history remembers Gregory I as a good man, his exercise of civil and military powers did much to exalt the authority of the papacy.
After Gregory I, the church enjoyed a century of great influence politically and among popular opinion. However, the century following the death of John III (561-574) is filled with weakness, corruption, violence and decadence. Now, majority of popes were learning openly disreputable lives. Because of this, their sphere of political influence was greatly diminished.
GENERAL CHURCH DEVELOPMENT, 500 – 1000 AD
From 500 to 750, the church held ¼ to 1/3 of all land in the kingdom. Bishops and abbots resembled dukes and counts in their status, function and behavior. These men were once again used in Italy as governmental administrators because they were the only educated men in the land.
In the middle of the 8th century, without prompting from Rome, although with its approval, Bonifice began traveling evangelistically. Under his direction great numbers of people in present-day Germany came to know Christ.
Also during this time, the power of the papacy was being consolidated, mostly papacy was being consolidated, mostly under Nichols I (858-867). This was accomplished by two collections of documents, one mis-dated and attributed incorrectly to a known author, and the other composed largely of falsified papers interspersed with genuine writings of the popes.
In the middle of the 9th century, feudalism developed. Everyone, excepting a slave, was over someone else. The on below swore fealty and service. The one above swore to provide protection. This was to play a factor in the various popes’ relations with the various emperors to come.
In the 10th century, the prestige of the papacy declined somewhat due to internal politics. In spite of this, a great movement of reform was initiated in a monastery. In 910, the town and manor of Cluny was given over “to the Apostles Peter and Paul” for the erection of a Benedictine monastery. This was done with the stipulation that the monks should retain their passions and choose their own abbot, regardless of their patron, the pope or the king. The resulting freedom from political and feudal interference led to the integrating of Christian beliefs within the surrounding society.
THE FIRST CRUSADE
The first Crusade was mainly supported from France. In 1095, Pope Urban II raised an army to answer a plea for help from Alexius Comnenus, the eastern emperor. The common soldiers considered themselves the pope’s men, but the emperor insisted on the oath of fealty to himself. It seems he did not trust the pope and his soldiers. With misgivings on the part of common soldiers, this oath was finally accomplished. Urban II’s vision was for the holy places of Christ to be wrested from the Muslims and returned to Christians control. The leaders of various soldiers each had their own agenda, however. Only the drive of the common soldier to accomplish their task held the crusade together. Jerusalem was conquered by the Order in 1099.
GENERAL CHURCH DEVELOPMENT, 1100 – 1300 AD
After more than a century of tense political maneuvering against each other, the pope and the emperor reached a compromise. The Concordat of Worms in 1122 stated that bishops were to be appointed solely by the Church. After having been installed in office, they should swear fealty to the emperor.
Our modern chapter divisions were not original to the Scriptures. They were made by Stephen Langton, archbishop of Canterbury. He died in 1228. Current verse divisions did not come until much later.
During the 12th and 13th centuries, almost every phase of European culture reached its highest achievement from the middle ages. This period is sometimes called the medieval renaissance. Scholasticism and chivalry flourished. The papacy in the early 13th century possess more power than at any time previous, and more than any other institution of its day.
Around the turn of the 12th century, Cistercians were founded. This monastery was founded as a movement back toward piety and asceticism, in reaction to worldliness perceived in other monastic movements.
TEMPLARS
In 1118, Hugh de Payens, a knight of the lower nobility of Champagne, along with eight other knights, approached the king of Jerusalem, Baldwin II (1118-1131). These seasoned knights had a new concept: they wished to dedicate their entire lives to the service of the Holy Land. Offering to take the same vows of poverty, chastity and obedience as would a cloistered monk, their concept was in direct opposition to the life-style of the secular medieval knight.
The secular knight fought for a price, usually a piece of land and the people who worked it. In exchange, he pledged war service for a specified number of days per year to the man who granted him land. He loathed the concept of poverty. After all, money was needed for horses, armor, weapons and servants. If he fought beyond the contract period, he negotiated for pay. Often, noble knights were sought in battle for capture and ransom, as this was much more financially rewarding to their captors than their deaths would be.
While a secular knight might be chivalrous toward ladies, they were only so toward ladies of their own class. All others were fair game. The medieval knight was only obedient when necessary. Obedience in feudal system was often extracted by the fear of what punishment disobedience could bring. Obedience was not a virtue, but a safety precaution.
De Payens and his group did not wish to cloister themselves in a monastery. Instead, they proposed to patrol the roads of Jerusalem, and protect the pilgrims who journeyed to see the holy placed of Christ. Pilgrims were an excellent source of revenue for Jerusalem, and if the King would be patron for this group, that revenue would be more secure. Baldwin II liked the idea, as this gave him increase in fighting men without having to grant land or titles. These knights were given space in a portion of al-Aqsa Mosque on the Temple Mount. Since this structure is said to have been built on the site of the original Temple of Solomon, the knights became known as, “The Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and the Temple of Solomon.” Later known as the Knights of the Temple, the common usage became the Knights Templar, or simply the Templars.
The structure and organization of the Templars was given by Bernard, a monk who desperately wished for reformation of the Church. He desired the Church to live closer to the morality of Christ. Into the organizational structure was incorporated regulations of diet, extensive daily prayers, time alone in meditation and devotions in a atmosphere deliberately separated from the world of non-members. To these requirements were added daily military duties, such as the inspection of their horses and equipment.
Within ten years, Pope Innocent II (1130-1143) issued the bull “omne datum optimum,” Exempting Templars from all authority on earth, secular and temporal, except that of the pope, himself.
THE GREAT SCHISM
England and France quarreled with the papacy over tithe money. In 1296, the struggle began to escalate. In 1299, Bonifice VIII (1294-1303) issued a papal bull decreeing that for salvation, every human being must be subject to the Roman pontiff. This meant the rulers of England and France must come into line and allow tithe moneys to be used as pope saw fit. At this time, the money was being used to finance a war.
In 1303, France’s King Phillip sent men to kidnap the pope from his summer residence in Angni, Italy. Bonifice died shortly afterward, and the papacy was transferred from Rome to Avignon, a little principality in the South of France. For almost seventy years, Avignon was home to the popes, who were all French during this time.
King Phillip began using the Inquisition for his own political ends. He also exerted great pressure on the popes to do his bidding, even to abolishing the Templars. In 1314, fifty-nine Templars were burned in Paris as heretics.
In 1377, Gregory XI (1370-1378) decided that he must make a break with France so that other countries would not renounce the Holy See. He went back to Rome and died the next year. His successor, Urban VI (1378-1389), was an Italian. The French could not support this, so they chose another pope, who returned to Avignon and took the name Clement VII. The two popes promptly excommunicated each other, with each of their successors doing the same. Clement VII and his successors have never been officially recognized by the Roman Catho;ic Church. Now, there were two popes, each with his own college of Cardinals. This chasm in the church caused division on every level of the Western empire. Nations, regions, monasteries and even the common men were all divided by confusion and dissent. This is called the Great Schism, and it endured until 1459. In each country, rival bishops arose in the names of rival popes, and monarchs were unable to enforce uniformity within their own domains.
After thirty-four years of power struggles between the two factions, the cardinals of both popes became so disgusted that they called a joint council at Pisa in 1409. The popes at the time were Benedict and Gregory. The deposed both popes and elected a new pope who died shortly after. He was succeeded by John XXIII (1410-1415), who was supremely unqualified to be a spiritual leader. Benedict and Gregory had not resigned, nor did they recognize the decision of the council. The council had been called without full consent and support of the church, thus, its decision were not necessarily binding. Now, instead of two popes there were three.
Emperor Sigismund, Having seized Rome in 1413, called a council with the reluctant consent of John XXIII. In 1414, the Council of Constance, with full backing from the church and the Emperor, deposed John XXIII and Benedict. Gregory, now an old man, abdicated, and a new pope, Martin V (1417-1431), was elected. The Great Schism was over, and Martin V returned the papacy to Rome in 1420.
JOHN WYCLIFF
The famous translator John Wycliff was born in 1320.
In 1376, because of interference of the clergy, especially the Popes, in politics, Wycliff became an outspoken advocate of reform. Wycliff held that an ecclesiastic who was not worthy of his office due to poor character, abuse of his authority, etc., had forfeited his tenure. His teaching aroused opposition of the high clergy, the property holding orders and the papacy.
While he did not reject the papacy, he taught that the Scriptures were the only law of the church. Against common teaching, he stated that the church itself is not centered in the Pope and the cardinals. Convinced that the Bible is the law of God, he proceeded to direct a translation of the Vulgate into English language.
Wycliff began sending out teems of two, which he dubbed his “poor priests.” These men would travel barefoot, in long robes, and with staff in hand. Although they had taken no permanent vow of poverty, they did, indeed, travel as Jesus instructed His followers, as recorded in Matthew 10. These traveling teams enjoyed great success at the out start. But by 1379, the Lollard Movement, as Wycliff’s followers were known, had fallen from public favor. In 1382, the :poor priests” were arrested. At a synod in London, the archbishop of Canterbury condemned twenty-four of Wycliff’s opinions.
John Wycliff died December 31, 1384, still pastor at the rectory in Lutterworth, an appointment he had enjoyed since 1374.
JOHN HUSS
Born around 1366, John Huss earned his Bachelor of Theology in 1373 and his Master of Arts in 1394. Ordained to the priesthood in 1401, he was appointed Rector of the University in Prague in 1402. John Huss read Wycliff’s theology. He gained a popular following because of his fiery sermons in the Bohemian (common) language. More clergy politics led to the foundation of the University of Leipzig, with Huss as rector in 1409.
Huss crossed theological/political swords with Pope John XXIII (1410-1413) over the issue of indulgences. Because of Huss, the Papal Bull (decree of the Pope) was burned by the populace. Huss was excommunicated. He retired into exile outside of Prague. When offered safe-conduct to the Council of Constance by Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund, Huss, although fearing his life in peril, went to the council. His hope was to convince the council to come to his way of thinking. After arriving at the council, he was imprisoned by Pope John XXIII, and Sigismund refused to enforce his promise of safe-passage. On May 4, 1415, the council condemned Wycliff and had his body exhumed and burned. July 6, 1415, Huss was also condemned and burned at the stake.
This was not the end of Wycliff’s and Huss’s beliefs. Bohemia was now in an uproar. Several factions contributed, but one, the Taborites, held to John Huss’s teachings. Led by the blind general Zizka, the peasant hordes organized. These men, armed only with flails, repulsed emperor Sigismund’s troops. Zizka’s group was fighting against the Roman Catholic church and it’s decadence. They did not want an Immoral religion. General Zizka and his followers were eventually defeated by Emperor Sigismund.
MARTIN LUTHER
Martin Luther (1483-1546) became a monk in an Augustinian monastery in 1505. It is noteworthy that he was much more interested in reforming himself rather than the Church. Yet, his impact is still felt today.
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