Soviet Political Institutions
Before Gorbachev’s reforms the CPSU…
1. dominated the state
2. determined candidates for high and low level party bodies w/ uncontested elections
I. CPSU (Communist Party of the Soviet Union)
A. Politburo (Top party organ)
1. considered all important policy issues
2. decision-making center
B. Central Committee
1. broader political elite (regional party leaders)
2. had some influence on Politburo
C. Secretariat (Bureaucracy)
1. answerable to Central Committee
2. 1970’s about 1500 employees in committee and 10,000 at lower levels
II. Soviet State Structures
A. High State Positions
1. appointed through the nonmenklatura
(so the party could fill it with reliable individuals)
2. head of CPSU also head of State
B. Council of Ministers (Cabinet)
1. also chosen by party
2. little decision-making authority
C. Supreme Soviet (Parliament)
1. members directly elected by population, but single candidate chosen by higher CPSU organs
2. little decision-making authority, mostly implemented it
3. state bureaucracy larger than party bureaucracy
III. Soviet Constitution
A. Last Soviet Constitution adopted in 1977
1. principles ignored because it provided for legislative, executive, and judicial powers although separation of powers inapplicable to Soviet society
2. with power of appointment under control of party, no court has authority ( “Telephone justice”)
IV. Soviet Union Federal System
A. 15 Union Republics (now independent)
1. powers granted to 15 union republics
2. false power since all aspects of life dominated by party
B. Autonomous republics
1. formed around a core non-Russian population group within Russia’s borders
2. granted rights but unrealistic
C. Regional Administrative units
(Oblasts and Krai)
1. no ethnic basis
2. all tied to CPSU
Gorbachev’s Reforms
? Communist Party leader in March 1985
? He wants to spur economic growth and political renewal without undermining Party rule or basic idealogical precepts.
? Uses four important concepts for his reform program:
1. Perestroika: (restructuring) involves decentralization and rationalization of the economic structure to enable individual enterprises to increase efficiency and take initiative.
2. Glasnost: (openness) involves relaxing controls on public debate, the airing of diverse viewpoints, and the publication of previously prohibited literature.
3. Demokratizatsiia: (democratization) an effort to increase the responsiveness of political organs to public sentiment, both within and outside the party. Placed greater emphasis on a law-based state and competitive elections.
4. “New Thinking”: involved a rethinking of international power in nonmilitary terms; it emphasized the search for cooperation rather than confrontation with the West.
? Along with this, Gorbachev tried to bring the constitution into harmony with political reality.
? After the USSR collapse even more radical political changes took place with the new president Boris Yeltsin in 1991.
The New Russian Constitution
• Adopted by referendum in Dec 1993
• Resembles French system but with stronger executive power
• Divided between Executive, Legislative, and Judicial Branches
Current debates over:
• power between legislative and executive branches
• Nature of Russian federalism
• Provisions unclear in both
The Executive
• Dual Executive
• The Government
I. The President
a. popularly elected every 4 years
b. no individual may serve more than 2 terms
c. authority of issuing decrees (addressing immediate issues until formal legislation is passed)
d. appoints Prime Minister and recommends other high government positions
e. Presidential administration about 1800 people
f. commander and chief of armed forces, heads Security Council
g. has same powers of many other Presidents.
II. The Prime Minister
a. only minister that needs to be approved by lower house (compared to Deputy Prime Ministers and Federal Ministers)
b. recommends other ministers
c. presents proposals for the executive branch (involving budget and legislation)
d. can issue resolutions and directives which the president may override if he deems them to contradict federal laws, etc.
Problems within executive branch:
? Patron-client networks continue to play a key role
• Government officials look to people they know and trust as they staff their organizations.
The Legislature
? Federal Assembly
I. Upper house; Federal Council
a. Represents Russia’s 89 federal units
b. 178 members; 2 representatives for each unit (heads of executive and legislative branch)
c. expresses regional concerns
d. representatives try to gain perks for regions
e. party factions do not play role because most Deputies do not belong to a political party group.
II. Lower House; State Duma
a. 450 members: 225-party lists, 225-single member districts
b. popular vote (at least every 4 years)
c. factions within unite deputies from same or allied parties
d. standing committees made up of men from various factions to review legislations
e. Speaker- elected by body (usually represents strongest political faction)
f. Deputies to Duma granted immunity from criminal prosecution
Subnational Government:
? 89 federal units composed of: 21 republics; 49 oblasts; 6 krai; 10 autonomous okrugs; 1 autonomous oblast; 2 cities with federal status (St. Petersburg and Moscow)
? Republics tend to be rich in natural resources giving them more autonomy (special agreements or treaties between federal government and republics)
-ASYMMETRICAL FEDERALISM – provides different regions with varying privileges
(immense diversity among regions and various levels of government encourages corruption and irregulation.
Conflict Between President and Legislative Branch:
? Elections are entirely separate frequently bringing conflict between the two branches
1. President nominates Prime Minister, but lower house Duma must approve.
2. If Duma rejects presidential nominee three times,
the president must dissolve the Duma, appoint interim prime minister, and call new parliamentary elections.
3. The Duma can issue no vote of confidence for the government twice and president calls new parliamentary elections.
The Judicial Branch
I. Constitutional Court
a. 19 judges
b. President proposes the members
c. decisions are binding
II. Supreme Court
a. civil, criminal, administrative cases
b. President proposes the members
c. Judges approved by the Federation Council after nominated by President
d. Among the justices are political figures, lawyers, legal scholars, and judges.
III. The Superior Court of Arbitration
a. Economic Issues
b. President can also propose members.
Problems with the Judicial Branch:
1. Low judicial salaries draw qualified personnel away, lowering the overall quality of judicial decision-making.
2. The court has hesitated to take contentious positions on several controversial issues relating to executive-legislative and center-periphery relations.
3. Has problems in confronting executive branch.
4. Corruption within the government.
Military
? Soviet Military
a. 2nd after U.S. (ranked as largest and most powerful in world)
b. always represented Politburo
c. supports government, rarely intervenes in civilian politics
? Russian Federation Military
a. Presidents Gorbachev and Yeltsin reduced military expenditures
b. Recently, they want to be more involved in government decisions
c. Salaries unpaid, inadequate living conditions and food supplies.
Policy-Making Process
? Less structured than many Westernized countries.
? Legislation proposed by federal government, president, regional legislatures, individual parliamentary deputies, and Constitutional Court.
? For a bill to become a law, it must be approved by both houses of parliament and signed by President.
? If President vetoes the bill, it must be passed again by two-thirds majority of both houses of parliament in order to override veto.
? Budgetary proposals can be put forth only by the government, and they usually elicit sharp controversy in the parliament because budget reductions affect key interests.
? Many policy proclamations made through presidential or government decrees without formal consultation with legislative branch.
? Resembles old CPSU Politburo
? Russia’s large privatized industries have been able to exert influence to gain benefits in the privatization of lucrative firms in sectors such as oil, media, and transport.
? Policy-making remains the nearly exclusive domain of the elite and the experts.
? Ad hoc nature: Political leaders mouth support for rule of law and universalistic values, in practice particular accommodations are made for specific regions, institutions, or groups.
? Inefficiency of policy implementation (Compared to Communist rule)
? Corruption hinders enforcement of policy decisions
? Mafia influences state organizations and officials as well as private businesses.
Society’s Role
Society’s ability to affect policy decisions through legislation is minimal.
1. Legislation has minimal power compared to executive branch.
2. Blocs and parties in parliament are isolated from public at large.
a. interest associations to lobby the parliament are weak
b. party membership is low
c. internal decision-making structures of parties are generally elite-dominated
3. Public hearing on controversial issues are rare