|
Professionalism and Responsibility
|
|
Aby cytować ten artykuł/To cite this article: Kruźlak A., Niebrój, L., Medical language: Cultural sources of its terms, [in:] Niebrój L., Kosińska M., Health Care: Professionalism and Responsibility, Katowice: Wyd. ŚAM 2005, p. 127-133 |
|
Agnieszka Kruźlak, Lesław Niebrój MEDICAL LANGUAGE: CULTURAL SOURCES OF ITS TERMS Medicine has been developing through history creating its own, ‘technical’ language. A great part of its terms come from natural language. Obviously, these terms have to be defined in the way to avoid any, or at least as much as possible, imprecision which is so characteristic for their use in natural language. On the other hand, however, it should be emphasized that the term’s main significant bases on its use in the everyday practice. This practice is deeply rooted in the specific culture of which literature is an essential part. The main aim of this study is to discover and describe the meaning of breathing-related terms and expression which could be found in the literature. Using a mental shortcut, it is possible to say that “breathing in literature” is a multistage process, which takes place on a variety of levels. Literature both reflects the beliefs of society and creates them, taking into consideration diverse influences it undergoes. It is possible to mention a variety of factors such as multiculturalism (assimilation of foreign trends and merging of intellectual or artistic ones) or factors that are not seemingly linked with literary and artistic activities, like economic and political situation. The importance of these factors is highlighted by the research material, starting from the mystical works, through works reflecting fascination with the East to those of one of the New Wave exponents, interpretation of which would not be fully understood without socio-political context. The aim of this paper is to follow the motif of breathing in literature on the basis of selected writings of Angelus Silesius, the poetry of Rainer Maria Rilke, Hermann Hesse’s “Siddhartha” and, “for a brief respite”, it will deal with the life of a citizen N.N., weighed down by a few atmospheres of real socialism – a character in Stanisław Barańczak’s “Sztuczne oddychanie” (Artificial respiration). All the above works will be analysed on their lexical and semantic levels, in a philosophical context (by means of etymological analysis) and in a socio-political context and showing its “openness” to interpretation and all the diverse possibilities of using it. It is lexis itself that could provide rich research material, as the phraseology of the Polish language abounds in such collocations as “wydać ostatni oddech/tchnienie” (to breathe one’s last), “patrzeć na coś z zapartym tchem” (to look at something with bated breath), or “odczuwać tchnienie wiosny, wiatru, burzy, poezji”, etc. (to feel the breath of spring air, of the wind, of a storm, of poetry, etc.); it also takes into account the possibility of the lack of air – “brak tchu/oddechu”, or one of an easy breath – “możność swobodnego oddychania” [1]. Idiomatic expressions appear in literature whenever one of the main characters dies, looks at something with admiration, feels the breath of spring, an approaching storm, an inspiration; and also when, while enjoying his own freedom, he makes use of his citizen’s rights, or, on the contrary, feels enslaved. This paper shall analyse the lexical aspect of the Polish language, including its etymology, yet only in connection with its semantic aspect. This is exemplified by semantic connections between such lexemes as: “oddech” (a breath), “tchnienie” (a breath, a puff) and “dusza” (soul, spirit) – in the lexical aspect (including their etymology): “oddech” comes from the word “tchnąć”, with a preserved “t”, in accordance with pronunciation rather than etymology. Other lexemes, like “duch” and “dusza” contain a different class vowel [2]. The common root of these words does not occur only in the Polish language; it is enough to compare two lexemes originating from a common Indo-European stem: “Atman”, (in Sanskrit: a breath, self), and a German verb “atmen” (to breathe) [3]. Similar relations occur on the semantic level and they shall become the subject of interpretation and discussion as seen in the light of the theory of literature. A close relation between breath and life is reflected in many cultures implying closeness of spirit (duch, pneuma, spiritus) and soul (dusza, psyche, soma): powers determining the principle of life, feeling and thinking, which is not destroyed at the moment of death. In Christianity the decision of “infusing someone with life” or ceasing one’s bodily functions is made by the Creator, who having formed man of the dust of the ground, breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul (4 Gen. 2,7). God determining the end of life “takes” the breath – when thou takest away their (people’s) breath, they die – says the psalmist (4, Ps No. 103). Ruah (the breath of the Holy Spirit, the Third Person of the Trinity), in turn, is equated with the source of life or life itself and it constitutes the principle of the Holy Spirit and the actions infused with His presence. Ruah is also understood as the internal human life. “The Invisible”, embracing “the depth of our soul”, cognisable in conditions similar to ecstasy, insanity, mystical elation, was especially interesting to Romantics, which is reflected in an extremely anti-realistic manifest written by Novalis (Fryderyk von Hardenberg) [5: 41] – a German philosopher and theoretician of Romanticism. Alfred de Vigny [5: 51], confessed that poetry is the daughter of enthusiasm and inspiration, the expression of what is most inexpressible within the soul, he termed Romanticism as transference of spiritualism into literature, which above all tries to gain an insight to the secrets of our hearts. It was the philosophy of Far East promoting pantheism which was of special interest to Romantics: the presence of a spiritual element in nature, being the bond between man and both nature and divinity. One of the precursors of mysticism was a 17th century mystic Angelus Silesius (Angel Silesian) [6: 4–10], who worked in Breslau. Influenced by mystics from “Deutsche Theologie” circle as well as Dionysius the Areopagite, Thomas Aquinas, Augustine and Bernard of Clairvaux, he believed that God is the all-permeating essence of all things, present also in nature and creating unity with the world. Jeżeli Cię duch wieczności owionie/poczniesz z ducha wieczności dziecię w swoim łonie [7: 16] (“If you are shrouded in the spirit of eternity/from the spirit of eternity you will conceive a child in your womb”) (”Dziecię wieczności” – “A Child of Eternity”). A human soul remains in such a close relation with God, that these two beings cannot exist without each other. Jestem Bogiem brzemienny. Nade mną polata Jego Duch z tym Bogiem, co we mnie się brata (“I’m pregnant with God. Hovering above me is His Spirit with the God who fraternizes within me”) (“Jestem Bogiem brzemienny” – “I’m pregnant with God”) [7:16]. Angelus Silesius’s literary legacy being the content of the book “Cherubowy wędrowiec” (“Cherub Wanderer’) [published in 1937] or under another title -“Pątnik anielski” (“Angelic Pilgrim”) [published in 1990], influenced the writings of Polish Romantics: it was often referred to and paraphrased by Adam Mickiewicz. Pantheism, which was mentioned above, as well as other elements of Far East philosophy (Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism) will be discussed when analysing and interpreting “Siddhartha” by Hermann Hesse and Sonnet I (from the Second Part) by Rainer Maria Rilke. The science of prana breath, contained in Vedas and Upanishads, is based (similarly to the elements of Christian philosophy which were discussed earlier) on the observation that breath is the sign of life – when it ceases the man dies. One can distinguish other powers of life (called the living breaths, such as speech, hearing, eyesight and semen) which are subordinated to breath as the highest authority [8:97–98]. Vedas distinguish a few kinds of breath, each having a specific function (they will be useful when analysing Hesse’s “Siddhartha”). These are: exhaling (prana – Aushauch), inhaling (apana – Einhauch), breath “upwords” (udana – Aufhauch), breath “together” (samana – Zussamenhauch) and breath “throughout” (vyana – Durchhauch) [8:102]. Breath is identified with Atman (the individual self, spirit or soul) I am prana breath. Warship me as Atman, consisting of cognition (prajnatman), as life, as immortality. Breath is life and life is breath. (...) it is through breath that one achieves immortality in the other world (8:120). What is also worth mentioning is that vyana in Persian means soul [8:102]. All Indian philosophies (except Buddhism and materialistic philosophies) recognise spirit as a transcendental element. What Vedanta attributes to spirit is eternal reality, everlasting, involved in the drama of the passage of time and incarnation, which entails suffering. The spirit got entangled into a relation with matter, being an illusion (maya), as a result of ignorance (awija). Liberation can be achieved through cognition or, in other words, full awareness of the freedom of Atman. It is possible to reach this state by means of studies, asceticism, meditation and exercises (asana) as well as breathing exercises (pranajama). Liberation from suffering (ved. moksha, bud. nirvana) takes place when spirit starts to understand its free, everlasting nature [9:43, 47–48, 69]. Similar breathing exercises can be also found in non-Indian asceticism like, for example, Taoism or Islam [9:73]. The protagonist of “an Indian poem” Siddhartha (which is also the name of Buddha) is a young man looking for real liberation. As a Brahmin’s son, he is well-educated and also has become familiar with a complex system of meditation practices whose aim is his spiritual liberation. He has learnt such things as how to control his breath by pronouncing the word “Om” silently. He already knew how to speak the Om silently, the word of words, to speak it silently into himself while inhaling, to speak it silently out of himself while exhaling, with all the concentration of his soul, the forehead surrounded by the glow of the clear-thinking spirit. He already knew to feel Atman in the depths of his being, indestructible, one with the universe [10:7]. Thinking about the sense and aim of his practices, he leaves his family in search of a new path. By liberating himself from the dogmas of religion, philosophy and tradition, the young man entersthe process of maturation, based on the principle of the harmony with oneself, thinking, waiting and fasting, as well as on the harmony with nature. Having left his father’s home and spent some time among ascetics – samanas, he rejects Buddha’s teaching, which he got to know personally, and leads a lavish “worldly” life, becoming a merchant, and abandoning himself to passion. Not being able to find happiness or satisfaction, in search of which he deserted the philosophy of Upanishads, ascetic practices and Buddha’s teaching, he starts living upon a river together with a ferryman, Vaduseva (the name is one of Krishna’s incarnations) and learns from the old man, or perhaps from the water, how to break free from suffering. Suffering after his son’s escape, about whose existence he learnt by accident and who quickly became the most treasured person in his life, he is lost in meditation on the river. And when Siddhartha was listening attentively to this river, this song of a thousand voices, when he neither listened to the suffering nor the laughter, when he did not tie his soul to any particular voice and submerged his self into it, but when he heard them all, perceived the whole, the oneness, then the great song of the thousand voices consisted of a single word, which was Om: the perfection [10: 121]. This is when the life of this already aging man describes a circle. It is possible to look for rebirth here, as well as for the highest level of perfection (enlightenment – in Buddhism) or perhaps for the harmony of all spiritual powers. It is worth mentioning that, similarly to the diversity of breath types, which all have their functions, particular stages of Siddhartha’s life make him Buddha himself. It is thanks to them that he not only got to know both the positive and the negative aspects of reality but also started to understand the purpose of his life, both of the years devoted to prayers and those spent in a courtesan’s house. He reached nirvana by accepting the world the way it is, by enjoying life, by tasting love, rather than by meditation which is a form of escape from life. Having achieved the internal harmony with the world he obtained wisdom beyond any philosophy or religion, beyond words. Hesse commented upon this state, saying: Awakening of saints is the same as Buddhist nirvana – (it) can be found in a slightly different form in Laozi (Lao-tse), whose “Way” is a way of moving from justice to aiming at nothing [11:196–203]. Hesse in his letters to friends admitted his fascination with both Hinduism and Taoism or Buddhism. Buddha surpassing Buddha [11:202] – as he described the protagonist of his book. A slightly different way of presenting atman breath is thekey to interpreting Rainer Maria Rilke’s Sonnet I, as done by Leszek Polony, who followed Heidegger’s line of thinking. Breathing: you invisible poem! Atmen, du unsichtbariges Gedicht [12:154] Complete interchange of our own essence Immerfort um das eigne with world-space. Sein rein eingetauscher Weltraum. Breath has obviously been presented as an invisible spiritual element, the deepest particle of personality, but also as the universe. The secret, invisible substance of existence has been compared to the process of a continuous flow, waving and exchange [3:40], being a kind of bridge between man’s inner self and the surrounding world, which happens rhythmically. You counterweight Gegenwicht in which I rhythmically happen. in dem ich mich rythmisch ereigne Single wave-motion whose Einzige Wellen, deren gradual sea I am: allmaehliches Meer bin ich, you, most inclusive of all our possible seas- sparsamstes du von allen moeglischen Meeren space has grown warm. Raumgewinn The world being a counterweight for man, who is described as the most inclusive condensation of this matter, which is expressed by an oxymoron “the most inclusive of all our possible seas”, and at the same time as gaining control over space, translated by Przyboś as “zamach na przestrzeń” (“an attempt at acquisition of space”). We can also notice the reversal of the subject – object relation, consisting in attributing the characteristics of the object to the subject and vice versa. “I am the most inclusive of all possible seas” says the lyrical subject, attributing the features of the universe, the absolute, to himself, whereas the characteristics of breath – a returning wave – are individual, partial [3:40]. What can be noticed is the reversal of the common way of grasping reality. The statement that man is part of the sea or the space with which he breathes seems to be “logical” and “factual”. The chiasm trope used here shows the unity above all divisions as ostensibly contradictory. Partialness in itself bears some characteristics of the universe, and it fulfils itself in an individual through transcendence in the same way. Polony writes about substance which is expressed in poetry as “spiritual breath”, in the perimeter of speech, which surrounds words, yet does not close speech – offering it, again and again, a clear, immaculately new card. Continuous interactions expressed in poetry as “spiritual breath” are nothing but searching for new meanings. An entirely different imagery can be noticed in “Sztuczne oddychanie” (“Artificial Respiration”) and other poems collected in “Jednym tchem” (Without Stopping for Breath) by Stanisław Barańczak. It springs from literary trends which came into existence after 1945, part of which are the experiences of the 1968 generation, focusing on the political events of March that year in Poland [13:11–14; 14:87]. The poetics of winter, thaw, greyness, breathing difficulties is the immanent part of the world, in which the protagonist of “Sztuczne oddychanie” (Artificial Respiration), an unknown citizen N.N., has to live. He is a 33-year-old man, the so called, “statistical citizen, an average man, who does not get involved in politics” (N.N., i.e. “unknown” could mean nothingness, infinity but, first of all, it refers to the unknown name of a missing person – a person of No Name). Every day life combined with the density of air, which becomes a metaphor of the existential situation being a common experience of the whole generation and society, (riots, strikes, student demonstrations, shortage of food on the market). The explanation of what the density of air is, can be found in an opening poem “Hymn poranny” (“The Morning Hymn”). Hyperbolism, condensation of sounds (moans, groans, drunken singing, baby’s crying), smells (fried food, sperm, alcohol), actions accompanying putting a prisoner in a cell or applauding, according to Krzysztof Biedrzycki, all partake in building the effect of density and congestion filling the air, which is unable to fit all these [13:25–27]. The air we all breathe/The air we all suffocate with/ (...) invisible but dense as cement [15]. Breathing has become an obligation, no wonder that the protagonist is of poor health and physical condition: hair and his own thoughts thinner and thinner, he held the rank of reserve private soldier, because of: congenital lung disease, heart pounding against the identity paper wall [15], he was also diagnosed with the beginnings of asthma. In the evening, he has had enough of breathing with bile and vinegar of air, the breath as spear sticking in his asthmatic chest [15]. The air, as public property, is an enslavement tool; that is why the character, when defending himself, clogs up his eyes and ears (for reality), which is the expression of the fear of being trapped. The situation in which he feels kept wrapped in cotton wool, despite the fact that there is enough space between the wires of a Nazi concentration camp and a Soviet forced-labour camp, there is enough air to take a few deep breaths is in fact the state of claustrophobia, the fear of being crushed, enslaved [13:51]. The gag of air prevents the protagonist of Without stopping for breath from normal life, it creates a situation when articulating one’s own thoughts is impossible – to say something one has to stammer without stopping for breath, one is too exhausted to say anything else. Our hero speaks nervously, unable to control his physiological reactions: that is the reason for broken sentences, repetitions. The situation becomes the more dramatic the better his awareness of the fact that the air that suffocates him is the only air there is and he cannot escape it. The metaphor of body in Without stopping for breath is presented in the same way: corporality becomes a prison: bony bars of chest, tower of trachea. The defencelessness, weakness of body is equivalent to the human condition. Somatization in Barańczak’s poetry emphasizes the reality of existence and the circumstances in which man finds himself [13:52, 26]. We observe the unknown citizen N.N. in everyday situations: while waking up, doing his morning exercises, reading a newspaper, listening to the radio. We learn that the magazine Żyjmy dłużej (Let’s live longer) gives advice on proper breathing: if it was frosty/ (…) one should hold one’s breath until the nearest thaw / and weaker characters should be given artificial respiration [15]. How it works is explained in a radio talk from which N.N. finds out about a suggested method consisting in increased repressions towards society: oppression, putting people’s hands up, and finally, the-kiss-of-life, which turns out ineffective on a larger scale. The breathing motif is an obvious allusion to the political situation in the ’70s and ‘80s in Poland. An individual is deprived of such a personal activity as breathing, and the air itself is heavier than freedom and turns into the tool of enslavement. There is a hidden paradox in this motif. The air is common property and it is imposed (since one cannot chose what one breathes with), but at the same time, it is life-giving and essential [13:29]. It forms a unique existential figure: living in conditions which are necessary to survive, and yet, destructive. A close relation between breath and spirit (soul) has been shown both in the lexical and semantic aspect. The etymological analysis of lexemes: tchnienie, dech, duch indicated their common root, and the same can be said about the relation between Atman (Sanskrit) and the verb atmen (German). The intuitively sensed relation between tchnienie (vital power) and duch (self), can be found in philosophical trends which recognised the existence of an everlasting, transcendental element in man, not undergoing destruction at the time of one’s death. Christianity understood it as divine breath, Far East religions – as Atman emanation – an impersonal principle ruling the world. Romantic literature which paid special attention to “spiritual depth”, often saw its emanation in nature. Specially understood pantheism was the expression of faith in the divine element existent in each and every being. Not surprisingly the reading of mystical writings of Angelus Silesius was the subject of interest for Polish Romantics. Herman Hesse used the Atman breath motif to show the process of his character’s internal development, reaching nirvana through liberation from all bonds and achieving perfection beyond any religious or philosophical systems. Rainer Maria Rilke presents Atman as an invisible substance creating a bridge between man’s internal self and the surrounding world. Constant interactions referred to in poetry as “spiritual breath” are the expression of the search for new meanings. A different character of another generation’s experiences, a complicated political situation in Poland, the feeling of enslavement were the reasons for using breath as a parabola of the existential situation of Polish society in Stanisław Barańczak’s writings. Life-giving breath is presented as a tool for manipulating an individual, which creates claustrophobic fear and the feeling of living under constant threat. No matter how the relationship between the vital powers and the principle of perception and thinking could be presented: be it personal or universal, one can always find there a multiplicity of meanings and richness of topics. This relationship is a reflection of the trends and theoretical assumptions of an epoch or a generation, remaining at the same time the expressiveness of the author. Multiplicity of interpretations shows that the motif is an “open” one: this is indicated by the vast difference between Agelus Silesius’ reference to “the spirit of eternity” and “the gag of air” making it impossible for the protagonist of “Without Stopping for Breath” to exist. The way the motif is set in context is a reflection of both the spirit of the times and diversity of levels in literature. The assimilation of the philosophy of Far East “opened” all culture (including literature) not only for the richness of topics or new sensuality but also permeated the recipient’s consciousness, forming or developing the range of perception. It is worth noticing how differently Stanisław Barań-czak shapes his imagery. Literature, and especially poetry, enmeshed in discussions about its sense “after Auschwitz” becomes “physical”, “somatic”, assuming that only what is tangible is true. Another important element is distrust towards the political system, being entangled in the machinery of lies and creating “better world”, so corporeality and the truthfulness of experiencing and learning determines the trends in modern literature but also, to a great extent, in fine arts, remaining, at the same time, the artist’s expression. What kind of relationship, in turn, will be created between them, how will the poetics change – these questions belong with a theoretical literary discussion and go beyond this article. REFERENCES 1. Skorupka S.: Słownik frazeologiczny języka polskiego, Wiedza Powszechna, Warszawa 1977. 2. Brűckner A.: Słownik etymologiczny języka polskiego, Wiedza Powszechna, Warszawa, 1990, 86. 3. Polony L.: Hermeneutyka i muzyka, Akademia Muzyczna, Kraków 2003, 39, 40. 4. The Holy Bible, (English) Pallotinum, Poznań 2000. 5. Straszewska M.: Romantyzm 1997, 41, 51. 6. Angelus Silesius: Cherubowy wędrowiec (Cherub Wanderer), trans. Brykczyński M., Prokopiuk J., Wydawnictwo Miniatura, Kraków 1990, 4–10. 7. Angelus Silesius: Pątnik Anielski (Angelic Pilgrim), Koło Miłośników Książki, Warszawa–Za-mość, 1937, 16. 8. Frauwallner E.: Historia filozofii indyjskiej (The History of Indian Philosophy) PWN, Warszawa 1990, 97–98, 102, 120, 102. 9. Eliade M.: Joga: nieśmiertelność i wolność (Yoga: Immortality and Freedom), PWN, Warszawa 1990, 43, 47–48, 69, 73. 10. Hesse H.: Siddhartha, trans. Łukasiewicz M., PIW, Warszawa 1998, 7, 121. 11. Stückchen Teologie, [in:] Hesse H.: Jego życie... (His Life...); 196–203, 202. 12. Rilke R. M.: Godzina Powagi (The Hour of Seriousness); 154. After: Polony L. Hermeneutics…; 39. 13. Biedrzycki K.: Świat poezji... (The World of Stanisław Barańczak’s Poety), Towarzystwo Autorów i Wydawców Prac Naukowych UNIWERSITAS, Kraków 1995, 11–14, 25–27, 51, 52, 26, 29. 14. Pawelec D.: Poezja Stanisława Barańczaka (Stanisław Barańczak’s Poetry). Reguły i konteksty, Silesian Uniwersity, Śląsk, Katowice, 1992, 87. 15. Barańczak S.: Sztuczne oddychanie (Artificial Respiration), Krakowska Oficyna Studentów, Kraków, 1980.
|
