Part II: Creation, Cosmology and Myth

Descriptions of the Norse cosmology have slight variations, but they are similar enough to draw certain parallels. All sources agree that the universe is divided into nine distinct worlds placed along the Cosmic Tree known as Yggdrassil. Each world is home to a certain group of inhabitants, be it gods, giants, or men. However, exactly how this tree came into existence is not entirely clear. As a matter of fact, it is never stated in the Prose or Poetic Eddas! To find out more about the cosmic creation, we can turn to four sources: The Prose Edda of Snorri Sturluson, and the poems Grimnir’s Sayings, Vafthrudnir’s Sayings and The Seeress’ Prophecy from the Poetic Edda. Each source has a different focus, dependent upon its author and genre.

Snorri’s Prose Edda, also called the Younger Edda, was written in the early part of the twelfth century. Snorri was a remarkable man. He was a poet, scholar, businessman, diplomat, and politician who had a passion for literature. By the time Snorri wrote his Eddas, Christianity had been the official religion of his native Iceland for nearly 200 years. The traditions of the ancestors were in danger of being lost. But Snorri didn’t just want to preserve the mythology of long ago. He also wanted to preserve the poetic styles of the skalds of old, and the Prose Edda lists many of the Norse kennings which otherwise would have been lost to us. Kennings and their significance will be discussed in the third part of this report. But Snorri’s education and background weren’t the only things that made him remarkable. His love for the old poems was so great, very little of his Christian background interfered with his writings of the Prose Edda. At the time, popular Christian theology reduced the gods of other nations into demons or servants of the devil. The Norse gods were no different. Part of the baptismal rite performed in Scandinavia had the convert say he rejected the works of Woden (Odin) and Thor as well as those of the Devil. Rather than reduce the Norse gods to mere demons, he suggested that they were actually great heroes and kings of antiquity who were raised to divinity by their followers after death. Although he still showed some of his Christian theology, Snorri treated the subject of his work with some degree of respect. Only careful study of the Eddas will sort out these re-workings.

Grimnir’s Sayings, Vafthrudnir’s Sayings, and The Seeress’ Prophecy are poems from the Poetic Edda. All three poems are of the mythic genre, or dealing with elements of, or pertaining to, the sacred world. Each poem takes a different approach to the manner. The Seeress’ Prophecy explains the cosmic history of the universe from pre-history until after Ragnarok, the final battle of good and evil. Grimnir’s Sayings is a discourse on the homes of the gods, as well as some references to creation and some of Odin’s many names. Vafthrudnir’s Sayings is a poem about a riddle contest between Odin and the giant Vafthrudnir. Several hints on cosmology are given here; all of them posed by Vafthrudnir, who wants to establish the giants as the eldest and greatest of beings. Who wrote down these poems is not known, but they were transmitted orally for hundreds of years. There are two theories as to why the Eddas was finally written down. First, Christian poets who wanted to prevent the old beliefs from being lost may have written them. This theory would explain the occasional semi-Christian influences in the poems. Or, pagan poets may have written them down for the same purpose while Christianity was spreading through Scandinavia. Either way, until the discovery of the Poetic Edda in the early seventeenth century Snorri’s Edda was the best account of Norse mythology.

What can be drawn from these four sources put together is as follows: the world was formed in the Ginnungagap, an abyss-like pit. To the north of the Ginnungagap lay Nifelhiem and Muspellhiem lay to the south. Fire from the giant Surt’s sword melted ice from Muspellheim. The water flowed into the Ginnungagap and formed the giant Ymir. The fire also freed the giant cow Audhumla ("The Nourisher"). Ymir fed himself with milk from her udders. While the cow licked the ice, she freed the god Buri, who had a son named Bor, who in turn with the giantess Bestla had three powerful sons named Odin, Vili, and Ve. Ymir also begot several children by himself. These first gods and giants started to fight, and in the end the gods prevailed. As Ymir fell, his body filled the Ginnungagap and his blood flooded the world, killing all the giant’s children. However, two frost giants escaped in a boat to regenerate their race. The gods than began to create the world from the fallen giant, turning various parts of his body into mountains, hills, clouds, and cliffs. Finally, the gods created a man and woman from two trees or blocks of wood.

However, this is an integrated creation, incorporating elements of all four sources. Also, some parts of the creation may have been added (or possibly even deleted!) by Snorri. To understand this fully, it is necessary to look at what each source tells us about the creation.

Snorri’s account in the Prose Edda is told to a king named Gylfi by three mysterious beings named "High One," "Just-as-high," and "Third." King Gylfi wanted to visit the Aesir in their home of Asgard. Once he arrives, he is taken before these three beings. Gylfi then proceeds to ask them various questions, which they answer. When asked who the highest of the gods is, they reply his name is All-father. Exactly who All-father is not entirely clear. High One gives All-father twelve names, which would lead us to believe All-father is Odin. However, the three beings then make Odin sound like the Christian God:

Of the twelve names given to All-father, some seem to fit Odin, yet others seem more appropriate to the Christian God. Some of the twelve names are repeated, so they will not be included more than once in this list. The names are as follows: Lord (or Raider), Spear-Thruster, Much-Knowing, Fullfiller-of-desire, One-whose speech resounds, Spear-shaker, Ruler-of-weather, and Gelding. These names seem to indicate an all-powerful warrior/wisdom/weather god and can be applied to either deity. However, how the title Gelding fits in is unknown. Neither Odin nor Yahweh were known to have gone through castration. Also confusing is the Ruler-of-weather title. Yahweh does show characteristics of a storm god, so it is no surprise Snorri might describe him with such terms. However, Odin has minimal association with weather, and he rarely shows any of the classic storm god traits. Most of the titles revolve around the deity’s role as a warrior, which should come as no surprise. Odin was known as a god of war (though not necessarily a god of warriors) and in the Old Testament God is frequently described as a warrior. The title Spear-shaker may refer to the deity’s ability to confuse or deter opponents, thus protecting his worshippers from harm. Again, this title makes sense either way. The remaining titles indicate the divine powers of fullfilling wishes, omnipotent knowledge, and the power of the spoken word. These last titles can also apply to either Odin or Yahweh.

While All-father is one of Odin’s titles, it seems that Snorri is trying to liken him to his God. Oddly enough, though, Snorri says that All-father was with the frost giants before the beginning of time. This may be a way of implying eternalness, for in Norse mystical thought the giants represent primordial energy and potential.

Next, Gylfi asks how the world was created, and the three beings answer by first quoting The Seeress’ Prophecy:

"In the beginning,

not anything existed,

there was no sand nor sea

nor cooling waves,

earth was unknown

and heaven above

only Ginnugagap

was-there was no grass."

Just-as-high informs Gylfi that it was several aeons before Niflheim was created, and in the middle of this realm lay a well that issued forth eleven rivers. Third adds that Muspellheim was the first realm to exist, a land of searing heat and flame. In this realm lived the fire giant Surt, whose flaming sword will destroy the world at Ragnarok.

Water from the rivers in Niflheim flowed into the Ginnugagap, where they hardened into ice. At the southern end of the void, the part closest to Muspellheim, the ice melted and formed the giant Ymir. The giant begets several other giants and fed himself with milk from the great cow Audhumla. This cow licked the ice to get food, and freed Buri, who had a son named Bor. Bor and his wife Bestla in turn bring forth Odin, Vili, and Ve. Now the great cosmic battle begins and Ymir is defeated. His body falls into the Ginnugagap and floods the world with his blood. One giant, Bergelmir, escapes with his wife in a lur. The gods then created the world from Ymir’s remains, set up the heavens, and fixed in the stars and planets. The Sun and Moon are given powers and time keeping is reckoned. Four dwarves were placed to hold up Ymir’s skull, which formed the sky. Finally, humans were created from two trees.

Creation in the Seeress’ Prophecy is short and simple. The poem opens up with a short dialogue between Odin and the spirit of a recently risen seeress. She reminisces:

"Young were the years when Ymir made his settlement,

there was no sand nor sea nor cool waves;

earth was nowhere nor the sky above,

chaos yawned, grass was there nowhere."

-Seeress’ Prophecy: 3

Right away the seeress goes into a brief account of how the sons of Bur created the world. Nowhere is the pre-creation battle mentioned or how the gods used Ymir’s body. Like Snorri, the seeress does go into the empowerment of the Sun and Moon, the innovation of a time keeping system, and the fixation of the stars. From here, a golden age begins, and the seeress talks of the gods building temples, altars, and forging treasures. The golden age seems to end when three female giants appear and stir up confusion. It has been suggested that these three women are the Norns, or Fates. The first dwarves are created and the seeress gives a long list of their names. Snorri also mentions the list of dwarves, but not until after the creation of humanity. At this point, some text appears to have been lost, for the poem continues:

"Until three gods, strong and loving,

came from that company to the world;

they found on land Ash and Embla,

capable of little, lacking in fate."

-Seeress’ Prophecy: 17

Odin, Haenir, and Lodur created the first man and woman. Odin bestows breath, Haenir grants spirit, and Lodur gives vital spark and fresh complexion. This ends the creation account of the Seeress’ Prophecy. The poet throws in a brief description of the Norns at the well, an account of the first war (between the Aesir and Vanir), the first truce, the legend of Odin’s pledge, and a list of the Valkyries’ names. Finally, the poet begins the narrative of Ragnarok.

This poem isn’t a creation account per se, but a riddle contest between Odin and the wise giant Vafthrudnir. The two engage in a contest where they ask each other riddles, and the loser pays with his life. In the end, Odin wins with his unanswerable riddle: "What did Odin whisper in the ear of his son on his funeral pyre?" During the contest, Odin seeks to discover his own fate after Rangarok while Vafthrudnir tries to prove the power and ancestory of the giants. Odin’s first question is where the earth came from. Vafthrudnir replies:

"From Ymir’s flesh the earth was shaped,

and the mountains from his bones;

the sky from the skull of the frost-cold giant,

and from the sea his blood."

-Vafthrudnir’s Sayings: 21

Many verses of this poem are recorded in Snorri’s edda, and he uses them in correct context. Either Snorri was familiar with the old poems or they may have been written down and in circulation as literature by his time. It is in this poem that we are introduced to Bergelmir, the giant who escaped the flood with his wife. The first time he is mentioned is when Vafthrudnir establishes a genealogy:

"Uncountable winters before the earth was made,

then Bergelmir was born,

Thrudgelmir was his father,

And Aurgelmir his grandfather."

-Vafthrudnir’s Sayings: 29

The second time he is mentioned is the problematic verse where Snorri may have gotten his idea of the flood narrative:

"Uncountable winters before the world was made,

then Bergelmir was born;

that I remember first when the wise giant

was first laid in his coffin."

-Vafthrudnir’s Sayings: 35

It is difficult to say if the flood/ark motif is a Christian addition to pagan beliefs. Snorri and Vafthrudnir’s Sayings are the only two sources to make reference to it. On the other hand, flood motifs are common in many parts of the world. If Bronze Age rock carvings can be thought of as the earliest traces of Norse religion, then the flood motif losses it’s weight as a pagan tradition. Ships are commonly pictured in rock carvings, but there is little indication of anything resembling a cataclysmic flood. Even later Norse art does not reflect the belief in a flood. But using the coffin as a death image may make more sense. Larrington points out in the introduction to her translation:

So in a sense, the coffin may be a symbol of the future defeat of the giants during Ragnarok.

This poem’ like Vafthrudnir’s Sayings, is not a creation account. Instead, it is a dialogue between Odin and the hero Agnar. Odin, while disguised as an old sorcerer, visits the castle of King Geirrod, who was resposible for the downfall of his twin brother. The king fears Odin has come to work ill magics upon him, so he has the god bound and tortured between two fires. Agnar offers Odin a drink, and in return for his kindness, the young man is blessed and given knowledge of the structure of the universe. Odin also briefly explains what was done with the body of the fallen Ymir:

"From Ymir’s flesh the earth was made,

and from his blood, the sea,

mountains from his bones, trees from his hair,

and from his skull, the sky.

And from his eyelashes the cheerful gods

made earth in the middle for men;

and from his brain were the hard-tempered clouds

all made."

-Grimnir’s Sayings: 40-41

Much of what Grimnir’s Sayings tells us about creation is echoed in other poems or sources, but it does add the origin of the clouds, trees, and boundaries of the world. While Grimnir’s Sayings may skimp on creation knowledge, it gives us a detailed description of the structure of the cosmos and Asgard.

"Three roots there grow in three directions

under the ash of Yggdrassil;

Hel lives under one, under the second, the frost-giants,

The third, human kind."

-Grimnir’s Sayings: 31

With out a doubt, the most difficult part of understanding the Norse cosmology is trying to determine how the tree is orientated, and this passage from Grimnir’s Sayings doesn’t help! It almost makes the tree seem as if it were on it’s side, either that or Hel, Midgard, and Nifelheim have to be on the same level. Modern conceptions of the world tree make it out as follows: the highest realm of the tree is Asgard, home to the divinities known as the Aesir. This world is the location of the famous realm of Valhalla ("Hall of the Slain"). It is here that Odin sits with the ruling council of powers upon his high seat that lets him see anywhere in the universe he wishes. Below Asgard is Alfheim, home to the light elves and spirits of the air. In the center of the tree is Midgard, the mortal realm. Four worlds separate Midgard. To the North is Nifelheim, land of cold and ice and home to the frost giants. To the South lies Muspellhiem, realm of heat and fire and home to the fire giants. To the East is Jotunhiem, home of the various non-elemental giants, ogres, ettins, trolls, and spirits. To the West is Vanahiem, a world inhabited by the divinities known as the Vanir. Two more realms lie below Midgard. First is Svarthiem, the land of the dwarves and earth spirits. Lower still is Hel, the underworld home of the dead who failed to achieve the honor required to enter Valhalla. However, Hel is not the lowest realm on the tree. Lower still, at the roots, lie two wells. First is the Well of Urd. Here the three Norns sit to declare the fate of all living things. The other well is called Mimir’s Well. Guarded by the giant Mimir, this well contains the knowledge of the world. However, those who wished to drink of this well had to sacrifice something.

This structure of the universe is well supported by Grimnir’s Sayings. The poem also tells of other problems facing the world tree. According to Odin, the tree is always under assault:

"The ash Yggdrassil suffers agony

more than men know;

a hart bites it from above, and it decays at the sides,

and Nidhogg rends it beneath."

-Grimnir’s Sayings: 35

Other serpents also gnaw at its branches. Nidhogg is a great dragon that sits at the tree’s roots, gnawing away at the tree. But among the pain the tree suffers there is some humor as well. There is an eagle that sits on the highest branch of the tree. Between the eagle and Nidhogg runs the squirrel Rataosk, who is always trying to stir up conflict between the two.

But nowhere is the creation of the Cosmic Tree mentioned. This and the occasional contradiction in Norse cosmology can be explained in one of two ways: either several mythological accounts were fused together or an essential myth of Yggdrassil’s creation has been lost to us.