Forest gardening and the art of imitation

The forests of the world have obviously survived for millennia without the guidance of human-made pesticides and irrigation. Nonetheless, modern monoculture farming methods seem to deny the existence of natural yield, fighting against processes in order to produce "high yield" crops. The result of this fight against nature are such absurdities as crops that have a limited amount of vitamins and minerals due to depletions within the soil, for instance most corporate-made bread must be fortified chemically because of the poor quality of monoculture wheat.
Robert Hart, in his book Forest Gardening: Cultivating an Edible Landscape, writes, "The forest garden is far more than a system for supplying mankind's material needs. It is a way of life and it also supplies people's spiritual needs by its beauty and the wealth of wildlife that it creates".

Benjamin Watson, in the "Foreword" to Hart's book, gives the example of a family in the United Kingdom farming a 400 square foot area that only required four hours a week of labor. Remarkably, their farm yielded the equivalent of fifteen tons per acre.

Forest Gardening is based on a seven tiered system that mimics the natural tiers of the forest, creating a self-sustaining environment. The diagram to the left represents this system. The tallest layer of growth is the canopy, which contains standard or dwarfed fruit trees. These trees help to "self-water" the entire garden because their deep roots reach far into the earth and tap the spring veins, pumping the water from these depths up towards the roots of the smaller plants. With these deep roots similarly come the capacity to naturally fertilize this agricultural system due to the roots' ability to pull minerals from the subsoil to its neighboring plants. These trees should also be compatible in order for them to successfully pollinate, thus, further eliminating human intervention in the garden. The second layer is the "low tree layer" consisting of fruit and nut trees on dwarf root stocks, which allows for an economy of space and light. The third layer is the shrub layer for fruit producing bushes, which again maximizes the use of space and the availability of light, at the same time producing valuable and enjoyable produce. Providing several valuable elements to the garden is the fourth tier, the herbaceous level. Here, various edible herbs and vegetables aid in the prevention of pests and disease. Harmful Insects and other intruders are repelled by the aroma of this herbaceous level. The fifth layer, again for the economy of space and in imitation of the natural world, is the vertical layer, consisting of vines and other climbing plants. These plants trained over trellis fences also help to create a barrier guarding against any large animals that might want to enter the garden. By helping to prevent encroachment of weeds, the sixth layer of groundcover, such as mint, helps to create an efficient mulch for the forest garden. Finally, the layer closest to the ground is the "rhizosphere," consisting of shade tolerant plants.

Masanobu Fukuoka--Reuniting Man and Nature
Through Natural Farming

In Masanobu Fukuoka's book One Straw Revolution the issues of man's separation from nature and the failures of modern agriculture serve as the foundation for his arguement supporting natural farming. By utilizing the natural tendencies of plants and the functioning food chain, Fukuoka created a farm which produced more than industrial farms while replenishing the soil's vitality .

As a former scientist, the role of science in agriculture is a predominant theme in his writing. Fukuoka believed that science has proven that humans understand little about the true workings of nature. In his words, "The irony is that science has served only to show how small human knowledge is". By this he means that we attempt to define and categorize all of the particulars in nature without seeing the whole picture. Many times he describes researchers visiting his fields to ponder how his gardens produce so much without any of the modern machinery and chemicals. In one such scene Fukuoka sets out one of the major problems with the scientific perspective on nature:

This professor often comes to my field, digs down a few feet to check the soil, brings students along to measure the angle of sunlight and shade and whatnot, and takes plant specimens back to the lab for analysis. I often ask him "When you go back, are you going to try non-cultivation, direct seeding?" He laughingly answers, "No I'll leave the applications to you. I'm going to stick to research" .

There is a disjunction between what is done in the lab with what is done in the fields. But there is also a problem with what the scientist sees in the fields. In an attempt to better understand the natural relationships and workings within an agricultural system, the specialists see only what they are knowledgeable in. As Fukuoka explains "Specialists in various fields gather together and observe a stalk of rice. The insect disease specialist sees only insect damage, the specialist in plant nutrition considers only the plant's vigor. This is unavoidable as things are now". Science serves to move agriculture and people away from nature, which he calls the "unmoving and unchanging center of agricultural development" .

The role of a farmer, in Fukuoka's mind, is an observer, not an intervener, of the natural order in his/her particular landscape. Knowledge of the ecosystem does not come overnight and it does not come from books. Rather, he/she must try to observe the changing nature of the ecosystem so that nature may cope with the obstacles of farming. Some of the strategies that Fukuoka explains are the laying down of rice straw instead of compost, direct seeding to retain the nutrients in the soil, sowing clover to combat weeds, maintaining a healthy balance of predators and prey, etc . To do these things a farmer must be in touch with the distinct natural system in his area. However, Fukuoka lays out what he calls the "four principles of natural farming" as guidelines for any one who wants to try to create a natural garden. These are :

1. No cultivation. This means no plowing or turning the soil. The earth cultivates itself naturally.
2. No chemical fertilizer or prepared compost. These practices drain the soil of its natural nutrients and increase human interference in the natural cycle.
3.No weeding by tillage or herbicides. Weeds are an important part of building soil fertility and in balancing the biological community. As a fundamental principle weeds should be controlled, not eliminated.
4.No dependence on chemicals. Weak plants develop from such unnatural practices which increases their vulnerability to disease and insects.

These are the practical foundations of natural farming. In and of themselves they are revolutionary with regard to modern farming. However, he also believes that the environmental problem will not be solved until humans change their entire view of nature. In the area of consumption, people need to reunite themselves with the natural way of eating. He states that people "have lost their clear instinct and consequently have become unable to gather and enjoy the seven herbs of spring (watercress, shepherd's purse, wild turnip, cottonweed, chickweed, wild radish, and bee nettle). They go out seeking a variety of flavors. Their diet becomes disordered, the gap between likes and dislikes widens, and their instinct becomes more and more bewildered". Fukuoka argues for what he called the "non-discriminating diet" this means that we leave all notions of human knowledge about food behind and let nature provide for us. He said that there can be no rules or proportions for this diet because it "defines itself according to the local environment, and the various needs and the body constitution of each person". In order for farmers to go back to the natural process of food cultivation, consumers need to return to the natural flavors and textures of the earth. We need to stop, as Fukuoka says, "eating with our minds".
If Earth First fights to save a section of old growth forest, it is "no matter how commendable, not moving towards a genuine solution if it is carried out solely as a reaction to the overdevelopment of the present age". These specific environmental problems are symptoms of the larger problem of the disjunction between man and nature. To fight the symptoms does not cope with the problem itself. Until, "the consciousness of everyone is fundamentally transformed, pollution will not cease". The farmer needs to "first be a philosopher. They should consider what the human goal is, what it is that humanity should create".

Graham Bell and the Practical Way

In order to place natural components together properly, the patterns of the earth need to be recognized. A recognition of quite logical and simple relationships of phenomena, yet crucial towards efficient and sustainable food production. Core Model is a template representing natural shapes. One may a understand the Core Model by slicing an apple core from top to bottom. At one angle you can see concentric circles, at another angle you see a parabola, at another angle you see spirals . Such shapes represent the forms of objects, energy and fluid movement. By working with these shapes and incorporating them into your growing plan, you can maximize productivity and lessen impact on the environment while increasing yield and plant health.

The Wind and Water pattern is an important fundamental in which to incorporate into the planning of growing sites. The Macro-movement of Wind and Water is described best through climates and weather zones. Climate and weather are variant, depending on the position on land. If you are growing in-land, you should expect colder winters and hotter summers. If you grow along the ocean, climate changes are more moderate between hot and cold. Rotation of the earth effects the wind course specific to hemisphere, Northern hemisphere( South -westerly winds), Southern Hemisphere (North-easterly winds), in addition to this, West coasts are relatively wet and East coasts are relatively dry. When planning a growing time-table it is crucial to understand ones local climate changes and seasonal weather history . Local mountains and valleys divert air flow, causing moisture to collect and fall on specific areas, while other areas are neglected. Knowledge of the location of a growing site effects plant productivity. Micro-movements of wind and water patterns are understood through the physical movement of wind and water at increased or decreased speeds. When wind and water travel through a landscape at a low velocity they flow around obstruction, but when traveling at a high velocity they create eddies which are "cast" into stream flows, creating turbulent patterns. Such patterns can be harmful to plants if not forecasted .

Other elements leading to the sustain success of food production are sun-sectors, the moon, and the important Edge Effect.
Sun-sectors are the area in which optimal light exposure is received on present and future time periods. Measurements of the movement of the sun provides a location that will best endure the elapse of time. Working with the moon is also a crucial factor when planning planting and harvesting. By timing harvest with a full moon you will get a higher and fuller yield. The reasoning behind this lies with the correlation of the level of water content in relation to the cycle of the moon . The Edge Effect, also known as Eco-tone, is based on the area of overlap between two different ecosystems. It is the most productive and highest in nutrients. A strategy for sustained maximization is to plant in a spiral format or create spiral ponds in which to grow around. The spiral shape has the most edge effect, hence one can increase productivity by just going with a natural pattern flow instead of manipulating soil or using pesticides. The Edge Effect also carries on-to understanding niches of plant and animal species. All plant and animals have specific niches of time, space and behavior. Within these niches exists a delicate interaction and balance between animal and plant.

"the Spiral of Intervention". This concept addresses the theme that nature should run its course and that minimal human intervention is best course of action. Bell offers the example of losing sheep to hungry foxes. The ideal course of action is to do nothing and lose five sheep a year. If yield is impaired beyond acceptable limits, begin on a step by step approach of intervention, each level an increasing effect on the environment . The first step is to increase sheep herd to compensate for lost sheep (increased output). The second step is to introduce a guard dog (biological intervention). The second step is to introduce wire traps on the fox runs (mechanical intervention). The last step is to poison the fox holes (chemical intervention). By following this method, and not advancing from one step to next unless completely necessary, a great deal of unneeded damage and alteration of the natural world takes place . This methodology continues on to also gardening and orchard practices. Bell supports not digging the land if plants can be grown without it. Trees should not be pruned if yield is sustained without it. Human intervention drains and alters energy flows of ecosystems. Do nothing if possible, minimal intervention if necessary .

"minimum effort, more effect" The mono-culture practice of industrial farm work and energy is disproportionate to the amount of yield harvested. Stacking provides a practice of producing similar level of yield but using less land. Stacking incorporates seldom used vertical space. Stacking is the inter-planting of trees and low level plant life. Individual species yield is lowered, but combined yield is increased, providing a healthy alternative to the dangers of mono-culture. Stacking allows for important plant diversity, provides resistance to disease, healthy soil and wildlife habitat . Most of all this method of planting allows more local inputs to be achieved, saved energy and increased local community self-reliance.

Slope management and erosion resistance are underlying factors important to all food production. It is important to recognize that slopes more that 30 degrees should not be cultivated. Such slopes should be left permanent pasture or woodlands. When ploughing a slope, erosion can be minimized by driving a tractor at right angles to the slope, either on or off the contour. Erosion can also be halted by introducing pioneer plants on to the slope. Such plants will grow quickly, retain nutrients and settle soil. Geotextiles are also used to prevent soil erosion. Woven materials are applied to a hill and plants are gown within it in an interlocked fashion. The mesh system provides retentive root structures .

Bill Mollison