Learning Disabilities  

Definition

 This category is the most confusing, controversial field.  Also, the definition of learning disabilities is varied among people because of the different theoretical views of the condition.  Also, the study of learning disabilities is relatively new than any other disability category, so it is not developed to its own conceptual terminology.  And, this category has grown at a rapid pace.  The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) define a learning disability as a "disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using spoken or written language, which may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell or to do mathematical calculations."

The definition of learning disabilities is usually related to academic achievement such as reading, writing, and math.

 Characteristics

 The characteristics of learning disabilities are usually related to academic achievement.  It includes problems with reading comprehension, spoken language, writing, cognition deficits(memory), attention problem or reasoning ability. Hyperactivity, visual and auditory discrimination problems and perceptual coordination problems are also characteristics of learning disabilities.  may also be associated with learning disabilities

 The number of children with learning disabilities has appeared ranging from 1% to 30% of the general population. Learning disabilities are characterized by a significant difference in the child's achievement in some areas, as compared to his or her overall intelligence.

 Identification Issues

 The definition of “learning disabilities” is so varied that it is difficult to characterize, and it caused that the number of children with learning disabilities has been ranged from !% to 30% of the general population.

Reference

http://www.ldonline.org

http://novel.nifl.gov/nalldtop.htm

http://www.ldanatl.org/

http://www.ncld.org/

Mental Retardation

Definition

People with mental retardation are those who develop at a below average rate and experience difficulty in learning and social adjustment, and the condition is manifested before 18 years of age.  IDEA has its own definition.

 "Mental retardation means significantly subaverage general intellectual functioning existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behavior and manifested during the developmental period, that adversely affects a child's educational performance."

 However, the assessment for general intellectual functioning relied on an intelligence test. People with mental retardation shows usually score 70 or below on such tests, and they may have trouble in learning, social activities.  In case of children, their mental retardation is not readily apparent and may not be identified until they enter school. However, as adults, they can live independent lives in the community and will no longer be viewed as having mental retardation. This is shown that the identification problems.

 Characteristics

 Some people say that people with mental retardation develop in the same way as people without mental retardation, but at a slower rate. Others suggest that persons with mental retardation have difficulties in particular areas of basic thinking and learning such as attention, perception, or memory.  Individuals with mental retardation will develop differently in academic, social, and vocational skills depending on the extent of the impairment such as mild, moderate, severe, or profound.

 Identification issues

Mental retardation has clearer definition than learning disabilities. However, definition has been changed several times, and in current definition, the criteria of IQ is too high, and it is hard to assess other people's behavior.  

Reference

http://thearc.org/faqs/mrqa.html

http://www.familyvillage.wisc.edu

http://members.aol.com/MRandDD/

Emotional or Behavior Disorder

Definition

 It is defined under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act as follows:

 "...a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects educational performance--

(A) An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors

(B) An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers

(C) Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances

(D) A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression

(E) A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems." [Code of Federal Regulations, Title 34, Section 300.7(b)(9)]

However, those definitions under IDEA has been criticized due to its lack of clarity, incompleteness, and exclusions of individuals described as socially maladjusted.  The Council for Exceptional Children has another definition about emotional or behavior disorder.  It includes a couple of things such as

(A) the inclusion of impairments of adaptive behavior as evidenced in emotional, social, or behavioral differences

(B) the use of normative standards of assessment from multiple sources, including consideration of cultural and ethnic factors

(C) the examination of prereferral interventions and other efforts to assist children prior to formally classifying them as disabled

(D) potential inclusion of individuals previously labeled as socially maladjusted 

characteristics

 People with behavior disorder usually show that they have average to lower than average IQ when it is compared to their normal peers.  They show a variety of problems in adapting to their homes, schools, and community environments.  Also, they have significant difficulties in academic achievement.  These are the characteristics of mental disorder.

 --Hyperactivity (short attention span, impulsiveness)

-- Aggression/self-injurious behavior (acting out, fighting)

-- Withdrawal (failure to initiate interaction with others; retreat from exchanges of social interaction, excessive fear or anxiety)

-- Immaturity (inappropriate crying, temper tantrums, poor coping skills)

-- Learning difficulties (academically performing below grade level)

 Some children who do not have emotional disorder may show some of these same behaviors at various times during their development. However, children who have serious emotional disorders continue these behaviors over long periods of time. Their behavior thus signals that they are not coping with their environment or peers.

 Identification issue

 How can we identifying “normal” behavior?  Our perception of others’ behaviors are influenced by our personal values, belief, and standards, so it is hard to identify normal behavior.  

Reference

http://www.raevans.com/msub42.htm

http://www.hood.edu/seri/behavior.htm

Speech and language impairment

Definition

 Speech and language disorders refer to problems when there is a serious disruption of the language process, or irregular development. These cause delays from simple sound substitutions to the inability to understand or use language or speech and feeding. Hearing loss, neurological disorders, brain injury, mental retardation, drug abuse, physical impairments can cause language impairments such as cleft lip or palate, and vocal abuse or misuse.

 Characteristics

 A language disorder is an impairment in the ability to understand and/or use words in context, both verbally and nonverbally. Some characteristics of language disorders include improper use of words and their meanings, inability to express ideas, inappropriate grammatical patterns, reduced vocabulary and inability to follow directions. One or a combination of these characteristics may occur in children who are affected by language learning disabilities or developmental language delay. Children may hear or see a word but not be able to understand its meaning. They may have trouble getting others to understand what they are trying to communicate.

 Identification issue

Sometimes parents find their child’s speech delay as a "baby-talk", so they don’t try to get help.  As seen in this case, it is hard to assess speech and language disorder due to difference of development of individual.  

Reference

http://www.asha.org

http://www.NICHCY.org

http://members.aol.com/msabbara/staars/language.htm

Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD)

Definition

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is often associated with learning disabilities, so the differences between learning disabilities and ADHD is not clear.  However, it can be explained as a condition that can make it hard for a person to sit still, control behavior, and pay attention. It usually begin before 7 years old.

Characteristics

As many as 5 out of every 100 children in school may have ADHD, and boys are three times more likely than girls to have ADHD.  There are three main characteristics of ADHD. These are:

--being very active (hyperactivity)

--acting before thinking (impulsivity)

There are three types of ADHD.

--hyperactive-impulsive type- the person is very active and often acts without thinking

--combined type- the person is inattentive, impulsive, and too active.

Identification issues

It is hard to notice these behaviors as a disability until the child is older. Also, ADHD is not defined in IDEA, but its features of ADHD have been recognized in many children with learning disabilities.  

Reference

http://www.surrealtech.com/addvantages

http://www.ns.net/~BrandiV/

http://www.mentalhealth.com

Autism

Definition

Autism is relatively newly acknowledge category.  Dr. Leo Kanner, a psychiatrist at Johns Hopkins University, wrote the first paper applying the term 'autism' to a group of children who were self-absorbed and who had severe social, communication, and behavioral problems.

 There is a definition of autism under IDEA.

 Autism means a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction, generally evident before age 3, that adversely affects educational performance.  Characteristics of autism include irregularities and impairments in communication, engagement in repetitive activities and stereotyped movements, resistance to environmental change or change in daily routines, and unusual response to sensory experiences. (U.S. Department of Education, 1991, p.41, 271)

 Characteristics

 Autism is a complicated developmental disability that typically emerges before the first three years of life. Its prevalence is relatively rare and according to the American Psychiatric Association, the prevalence of autism is about 2 to 5 cases per 10,000.  However, some other research showed the different figures of 9 to 14 per 10,000.  This variation is the result of difference in definition and diagnostic criteria employed. Autism is four times more prevalent in males than females and this gender difference is not unique to autism since many developmental disabilities have a greater male to female ratio. Family income, lifestyle, and educational levels do not affect the chance of autism's occurrence.

 Two common characteristics autistic child may exhibit include arching their back away from their caregiver to avoid physical contact and failing to anticipate being picked up (i.e., becoming limp). Autism impacts the normal development of the brain in the areas of social interaction and communication skills. Children and adults with autism typically have difficulties in verbal and non-verbal communication, social interactions, and leisure or play activities. The disorder makes it hard for them to communicate with others and relate to the outside world. In some cases, aggressive and/or self-injurious behavior may be present. Persons with autism may exhibit repeated body movements (hand flapping, rocking), unusual responses to people or attachments to objects and resistance to changes in routines. Individuals may also experience sensitivities in the five senses of sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste.

Over one half million people in the U.S. today have autism.  However, most of the public, including many professionals in the medical, educational, and vocational fields, are still unaware of how autism affects people and how they can effectively work with individuals with autism.

 Identification issue

 All people with autism are not alike and the definition under IDEA do not state that a child shows evidence of the condition after age 3. 

Reference

http://www.autism.org/asperger.html

http://www.autism-society.org/packages/early_intervention.html

http://www.autism.com/ari/

Cerebral Palsy

Definition

Cerebral Palsy(CP) is a disability caused by injury to the parts of the brain that control our ability to use our muscles and bodies. It happens before birth,  during delivery, or even after being born. Its impact can be mild, moderate, or severe. Mild CP may mean a child is clumsy. Moderate CP may mean the child walks with a limp. He or she may need a special leg brace or a cane. More severe CP can affect all parts of a child's physical abilities. A child with moderate or severe CP may have to use a wheelchair and other special equipment. Sometimes children with CP can also have learning problems, problems with hearing or seeing, or mental retardation. Usually, the greater the injury to the brain, the more severe the CP. However, CP doesn't get worse over time, and most children with CP have a normal life span.

 Characteristics

There are about 500,000 people who have CP in America. Each year 8,000 infants and nearly 1,500 preschool-age children are diagnosed with CP.

There are three main types of CP.

--Athetoid CP: It can affect movements of the entire body. Typically, this form of CP involves slow, uncontrolled body movements and low muscle tone that makes it hard for the person to sit straight and walk.

--Mixed CP:This is a combination of the symptoms. A child with mixed CP has both high and low tone muscle. Some muscles are too tight, and others are too loose, creating a mix of stiffness and involuntary movements.

 Identification Issue

Cerebral palsy is a complicated condition, and people with cerebral palsy have problems not only motor problems, but only nonmotor problems.  Many people with cerebral palsy are considered to be multidisabled due to those problems.  So, it can be hard to identify exactly.

Reference

http://www.ucpa.org/html/

http://www.nacd.org/articles/cp/html

http://www.ninds.nih.gov/health_and_medical/disorder_index.htm

Hearing impairment

Definition

The term "hearing impairment" is often used to describe a wide range of hearing losses, including deafness, but the regulations for IDEA define hearing loss and deafness separately. Hearing impairment is defined by IDEA as "an impairment in hearing, whether permanent or fluctuating, that adversely affects a child's educational performance." Deafness is defined as "a hearing impairment that is so severe that the child is impaired in processing linguistic information through hearing, with or without amplification." Deafness and hearing impairment are identified according to the degree of hearing impairment.  It can be assessed by a person's sensitivity to loudness and pitch. Hearing loss and deafness affect individuals of all ages and may occur at any time from infancy through old age.

 Characteristics

Hearing impairment is measured by its loudness or intensity (measured in units called decibels, dB) and its frequency or pitch (measured in units called hertz, Hz). It can occur in either or both areas, and may exist in only one ear or in both ears. Hearing loss is described as slight, mild, moderate, severe, or profound, depending upon how well a person can hear the intensities or frequencies most greatly associated with speech. Generally, people whose hearing loss is greater than 90 decibels (dB) are considered deaf. 

There are three types of hearing loss.

--Conductive hearing losses: They are caused by diseases or obstructions in the outer or middle ear (the conduction pathways for sound to reach the inner ear). Conductive hearing losses usually affect all frequencies of hearing evenly and do not result in severe losses. A person with a conductive hearing loss usually is able to use a hearing aid well or can be helped medically or surgically.

--Sensorineural hearing losses:  They result from damage to the delicate sensory hair cells of the inner ear or the nerves which supply it. These hearing losses can range from mild to profound. They often affect the person's ability to hear certain frequencies more than others. Thus, even with amplification to increase the sound level, a person with a sensorineural hearing loss may perceive distorted sounds, sometimes making the successful use of a hearing aid impossible.

--A mixed hearing loss: It refers to a combination of conductive and sensorineural loss and means that a problem occurs in both the outer or middle and the inner ear. A central hearing loss results from damage or impairment to the nerves or nuclei of the central nervous system, either in the pathways to the brain or in the brain itself.

Identification issue

It is not clear the distinction between deaf and hard of hearing.  Also, new technology in the development of hearing aid make people labeled as deaf to use their hearing under limited circumstances.  

Reference

http://webcom.com/~houtx/

http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/

Down syndrome

Definition

Down syndrome is the most common and readily identifiable chromosomal condition associated with mental retardation. It is caused by a chromosomal abnormality, and for some unexplained reason, an accident in cell development results in 47 instead of the usual 46 chromosomes. This extra chromosome changes the orderly development of the body and brain. In most cases, the diagnosis of Down syndrome is made according to results from a chromosome test administered shortly after birth.

Characteristics

There are approximately 4,000 children born with Down syndrome in the U.S. each year. The incidence of down syndrome is higher for women over 35,even though parents of any age may have child with Down syndrome.  People with Down syndrome are usually smaller than their peers, and their physical development as well as intellectual development is slower. Children with Down syndrome frequently have specific health-related problems. A lowered resistance to infection makes these children more easy to respiratory problems. Visual problems such as crossed eyes and far or nearsightedness are higher in those with Down syndrome, as are mild to moderate hearing loss and speech difficulty.
Approximately one third of babies born with Down syndrome have heart defects, most of which are now successfully correctable. Children with Down syndrome may have a tendency to become obese as they grow older. Besides having negative social implications, this weight gain threatens these individuals' health and longevity. A supervised diet and exercise program may help reduce this problem.

There are some common characteristics.
-- Poor muscle tone
-- Slanting eyes with folds of skin at the inner corners
-- Hyperflexibility (excessive ability to extend the joints)
-- Short, broad hands with a single crease across the palm on one or both hands
-- Broad feet with short toes
-- Flat bridge of the nose
-- Short, low-set ears
-- Short neck
-- Small head
-- Small oral cavity
-- Short, high-pitched cries in infancy

Reference

http://www.nads.org

http://www.ndss.org

http://www.familyvillage.wisc.edu/lib_down.htm

Epilepsy

Definition

 Epilepsy is a physical condition that occurs when there is a sudden, brief change in how the brain works. It has an impact that the individual's consciousness, movement, or actions may be altered for a short time. These physical changes are called epileptic seizures.

Characteristics

There are about two million Americans who have epilepsy.  One type of seizure consists of a convulsion with a complete loss of consciousness. Another type looks like a brief period of fixed staring.  Seizures are partial when those brain cells not working properly are limited to one part of the brain. Such partial seizures may cause periods of "automatic behavior" and altered consciousness. This is typified by purposeful- looking behavior, such as buttoning or unbuttoning a shirt. Such behavior, however, is unconscious, may be repetitive, and is usually not recalled.

These are symptoms of epilepsy.

-- "Blackouts" or periods of confused memory
-- Episodes of staring or unexplained periods of unresponsiveness
-- Involuntary movement of arms and legs
-- "Fainting spells" with incontinence or followed by excessive fatigue
-- Odd sounds, distorted perceptions, episodic feelings of fear that cannot be explained.

Reference

http://www.efa.org

http://www.ninds.nih.gov/health_and_medical/disorder_index.htm

http://www.aesnet.org/

Severe and multiple disabilities

Definition

The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps(TASH) defined the concept of severe and multiple disabilities.  Their definition focused on the relationship of the individual with the environment, the need to include people of all ages, and "extensive ongoing support" in life activities.  The IDEA does not define the term of severe disabilities as one of 12 categorical definitions of disability.  However, the definition of multiple disabilities defined under IDEA as conditions that can occur in any of several combinations.

People with severe disabilities are those who traditionally have been labeled as having severe to profound mental retardation. These people require ongoing, extensive support in more than one major life activity in order to participate in integrated community settings and enjoy the quality of life available to people with fewer or no disabilities. They frequently have additional disabilities, including movement difficulties, sensory losses, and behavior problems.

Characteristics

Children with severe or multiple disabilities may exhibit a wide range of characteristics, depending on the combination and severity of disabilities and the person's age. These are some characteristics of them.

- Limited speech or communication
- Difficulty in basic physical mobility
- Tendency to forget skills through disuse
- Trouble generalizing skills from one situation to another
- A need for support in major life activities (e.g., leisure, community use, vocational).

 Identification issue

 There are numerous definitions used to describe severe and multiple disabilities. Also, there has been a heavy reliance on standardized measurements, the IQ test, to identify people with disabilities.

Reference

http://www.kidsource.com/NICHCY/severe_disable.html

http://www.NICHCY.org

http://www.familyvillage.wisc.edu

http://www.parentpals.com/5.0newsletter/5.12miscnews/5.12.7severedisdef.html

Traumatic Brain Injury

Definition

A traumatic brain injury (TBI) is an injury to the brain caused by the head being hit by something or shaken violently. It can affect the way the individual thinks, acts, and moves. The term TBI is used for head injuries that can cause changes in one or more areas, such as thinking and reasoning, understanding words, remembering things, paying attention, solving problems, thinking abstractly, talking, behaving, walking and other physical activities, seeing and/or hearing, and learning.  However, the term TBI is not used for a person who is born with a brain injury, and it also is not used for brain injuries that happen during birth.

Characteristics

Each year, more than one million children have brain injuries.  More than 30,000 of these children have lifelong disabilities as a result of the brain injury. The symptoms of brain injury can be very different depending on where the brain is injured and how severely. Children with TBI may have one or more difficulties, such as physical disabilities, difficulties with thinking, and social, behavioral or emotional  problems.

--Physical disabilities: Those who has TBI may have problems such as speaking, hearing, walking and etc. Also, they may have a difficulty with writing or drawing skills.  In addition, they may have some kinds of headaches. It is possible that they may also have seizures. They may be partly or completely paralyzed on one side of the body, or both sides.

--Difficulties with thinking: Due to the brain injury, people with TBI may have a trouble in short-term memory and long-term memory.  In addition, their attention for things is done for a short period time.  They may have trouble talking and listening to others. Also, they may have difficulty with reading and writing, planning, understanding the order in which events happen, and judgment.

--Social, behavioral, or emotional problem:  People with TBI may have sudden changes in mood, anxiety, and depression. Also, they may laugh and cry a lot, and they may have trouble with controlling their emotions.

An individual with TBI may not have all of the above difficulties. Brain injuries can range from mild to severe, and so can the changes that result from the injury. Also, it is possible for parents and teachers to notice new problems, as the child grows.

Identification Issues

An individual with TBI may not have all of the above difficulties, and as times go by, she/he may show new problems.

Reference

http://www.neuroskills.com/~cns/tbi/injury.html

http://www.neuro.pmr.vcu.edu/

http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/go/cise/ose/categories/tbi.html

Vision loss

Definition

 The term vision loss is used to describe a condition experienced by people with a wide range of educational, social, and medical needs related to a partial or complete loss of a sight.  Partially sighted, low vision, legally blind, and totally blind are used in those context.

--Partially sighted: describes some type of visual problem has resulted in a need for special education.

--Low vision: generally refers to a severe visual impairment, not necessarily limited to distance vision. Low vision applies to all individuals with sight who are unable to read the newspaper at a normal viewing distance, even with the aid of eyeglasses or contact lenses. They use a combination of vision and other senses to learn, although they may require adaptations in lighting or the size of print, and, sometimes, Braille.

--Legally blind: indicates that a person has less than 20/200 vision in the better eye or a very limited field of vision (20 degrees at its widest point).

--Totally blind: students learn via Braille or other non-visual media.

Characteristics

The effect of visual problems on a child's development depends on the severity, type of loss, age at which the condition appears, and overall functioning level of the child. Many children who have multiple disabilities may also have visual impairments resulting in motor, cognitive, and/or social developmental delays.

Identification issues

A variety of terms are used, and it caused confusion.  

Reference

http://www.acb.org

http://nfb.org

http://www.hicom.net/~oedipus/blind.html