Eric Hammell

Media Theory and Criticism

Test #1

Positivism is a way of studying and interpreting hypothesis which emphasizes proof. Positivism posits that the way in which we create knowledge is by testing theories and determining whether they can be proven or disproven. It is not a metaphysical method of study; it relies heavily on quantitative evaluation. Because of its emphasis on proof, Positivism depends on Objectivism and Empiricism.

Objectivism posits that when we create knowledge we study external sources. This method of study attempts to identify and categorize bias as limiting factor in objectively studying these external sources. Any true conclusion is repeatable, replicable again.

Empiricism posits that phenomena are observable, measurable and external. The three come together to create a mode of study (or perspective) known as POE. POE uses the same method to study both the social and natural sciences. The scientific method is incorporated in POE. Results are quantifiable, sometimes measured as probabilities or statistics.

In the article Newspaper Photographs and the 1996 Presidential Election: the Question of Bias all three areas of POE are represented. Positivism is clear in the article’s purpose of quantitatively disproving the belief that newspapers exhibit bias to a political candidate in their selection of photographs. In examining the studies, the article found that newspapers did not favor a candidate with favorable pictures all the time. The newspaper's choice of photographs reflected society’s opinion of the candidate, not the newspapers. (JQ 304) In other words, newspapers did not "stick by" candidates when their popularity was down. In fact, newspapers were not shown to favor the candidates they endorsed through photographs. "The Chicago Tribune, an editorially more conservative paper which endorsed Dole, actually favored Clinton in their photos." (JQ 306)

Objectivism was present in the study’s use of external sources to reach a conclusion. This is shown through the use of newspapers and the external phenomena of peoples' responses to the pictures in them. Pictures were rated on their use of expression, activity, interaction, background, and camera angle. (JQ 307) Also, existing research was utilized as a springboard for understanding the study’s results. (JQ 310)

Finally, Empiricism was shown through the coding of pictures to measure quantitatively peoples' responses to different photographic representations. (JQ 305) Then the number of times each representation (positive or negative) appeared in the newspapers was measured. (JQ 307) Scores for each candidate were measured week by week. The total number of times a candidate appeared was also evaluated. (JQ 308) This coding and data collection lead to quantitative results.

There were many strengths to this article’s method of analysis. First, it took the results from previous studies on news magazines and combined them with this study on newspapers to create a new understanding. In this manner, we get a clearer picture of the news media at large, hence new knowledge. Second, the study provides a springboard (baseline) for studies to follow. The article actually offers a suggestion for a further experiment. "..using not merely more and less positive portrayals but gradations in between- that has yet to be conducted." (JQ 309) Third, the findings can not only be included with the previous magazine studies, but also compared against them. They can also be compared with other printed media’s representations.

Weaknesses also lie in the study. First, the idea of measuring people’s responses to photographic images is complicated by the fact of bias. A subject’s predisposition to a candidate can, as the article admits, and does change results. If the article can claim that newspaper favoritism for a candidate sides with popular opinion, so too it can be claimed that popular opinion has influenced the subject examining the photograph. As the article admits there are many more gradations between "good" and "bad" in the human psyche, this study did not reflect this. Second, the study failed to identify what stimuli DO influence peoples opinions, and how this is reflected in the opinions (albeit widespread ones) held by the newspapers.

The POE model is an effective type of research yielding many types of knowledge. POE can give insight into the workings of bias in an experimental situation. It can offer social implications through scientific method. It can offer an insight into the workings of the media and its impact on society, for example. POE produces results that can be measured and evaluated against prior findings.

It can also give more measurable (quantitative) proof than opinionated rhetoric can offer. Through such studies, we can learn more about how phenomena can be studied and quantified more successfully in the future. There are always measurable factors branching off the existing study which may merit further study. POE may lead us to final conclusions which are repeatable and measurable.