Confucius: The Grand Master of All Ages

INTRODUCTION

China, like other civilizations of the Old World, draws its basic ideas from that time of awakening between 800 & 200 B.C. which Karl Jaspers has called the Axial Period, the age of Greek & Indian philosophers, the Hebrew prophets & Zarathustra. The Chinese cultural organism assimilated Confucian morality, Legalist administrative techniques, Yin-Yang cosmology, & Taoist & Buddhist mysticism. Early Chinese history is a record of rulers, ministers & generals, & has little to say of philosophers unless they held office. Confucius was the greatest of philosophers of this age & was China’s first great teacher.

The oldest source of his teachings is the Lun-yu (‘Assorted Sayings’), commonly known as the “Analects”; a selection of sayings & brief anecdotes of the Master & his disciples. To read some of what Confucius said & “didn’t say” access the following on-site page: http://www.lyfe.freeserve.co.uk/quoteconfucius.htm. Through his 497-versed Analects, Confucius captured his country’s philosophy, culture & life. “I transmit,” he said. “I do not invent.” An outstanding student & teacher, he examined the relationships between nature & man, the power of the universe, The Tao, which expressed itself through respect & the balance of the yin & yang. “Everything has its beauty, but not everyone sees it,” observed the sage who believed with the proper models, every person could find goodness & balance. As a major influence of Chinese civilization, Confucius looked to the past for answers & celebrated the importance of ritual as an essential part of culture. Known for his outspokenness, his wisdom radiated brighter after his death & continues to be true today: “Five things constitute perfect virtue: gravity, magnanimity, earnestness, sincerity & kindness.”

THE LIFE OF CONFUCIUS

According to legend, the appearance of a Ch’i Lin or a unicorn foretold the birth of Confucius. It is said that the unicorn held in its mouth a jade tablet inscribed with the prophecy: “A child as pure as crystal will be born for the continuation of the declining Chou, to become a king without a kingdom.” Indeed the restoration to glory of the Chou Dynasty was to be a lifelong crusade of Confucius, known as K’ung Ch’iu, “the Master Kung,” who was born in 551 B.C., in Tsou, a small town in the feudal state of Lu in what is today Shantung Province. He came from a long line of impoverished nobility & is said to be directly descended from the rules of the Shang dynasty. His father, Shu-Lang He, a magistrate, military official & warrior, was 70 at the time of Confucius’s birth. When Confucius was 3 his father died & his mother, Yen Cheng Tsai, raised him.

By the time his was 15, Confucius had resolved to devote his life to the pursuit of learning, becoming what we would call a “universal man.” He restored & edited the works of the Chinese ancients – no easy feat! Growing up as he did in comparative poverty, Confucius viewed the world from the practical perspective of one who had experienced some of its harshest realities. By now the Chou Dynasty, which had brought civilization to China, was beginning to fall apart. This was a feudal period in which human misery was commonplace existing in massacre, famine, orgy, murder, starvation & depravity. Living in a single-parent family, Confucius was obliged to work at several jobs to help support the family. At various stages of his life, Confucius employed his abilities as a shepherd, cowherd, clerk & bookkeeper. Confucius was married at 19 to a young girl named Chi-Kuan. Their eldest child, a son, K’ung Li, was born a year later. At 22, Confucius initiated what is considered to be the first private school, expounding to those who listened, his ideals of personal conduct, government & justice. Confucius believed that only through education might there be true equality among men. He placed as much importance by the moral aspects of education as he did by the literary aspects. As his inspiration for the present & the future, he looked to the past, to the legendary leadership of the Duke of Chou. In his vision of reform, Confucius advocated legal justice for all as the foundation of life in an ideal world wherein human principles, courtesy, filial piety, & the virtues of benevolence, righteousness, loyalty & trustworthiness would prevail. The power of his rhetoric drew a growing band of followers, which would eventually number 3,000, among whom 72 would be called his most learned disciples.

The social & moral renaissance advocated by Confucius did not meet with universal approval, so it was at the age of 35, Confucius left Lu & traveled to the state of Ch’i. Returning to Lu when he was 43, Confucius embarked upon the compilation & editing of the literary works which have come to be called, “The Six Classics.” During this time he held public office briefly, but left Lu again destined to roam from state to state, searching for the perfect platform in which to set his ideals into practice. But this was not to be. He returned to Lu at 68, saddened & weary by his experiences of a cynical world.

In 479 B.C., at the age of 72, Confucius lay on his deathbed. His disciples kept watch over him during his final illness. His favorite pupil Tze-Lu recorded his last words: “The mountains must crumble, The strong beam bursts, The wise man must wither away like a plant.” Confucius was buried in the beautiful K’ung Forest, said to have grown from a few trees planted by his disciples in memory of their beloved Master. In like manner was Confucianism to flourish, surviving & surpassing other schools of thought in 140 B.C., when Confucianism was officially recognized as the only philosophy. During the Ch’ing Dynasty (A.D. 1736-1795), the Emperor honored Confucius with the title “The Grand Master of All Ages.”

With the exception of a wooden sculpture of Confucius, there is little evidence to suggest the physical appearance of the Master. However, from reported conversations between he & his disciples (documented in their writings), there emerges the portrait of a man of supreme dignity of bearing, graceful in his movements, formal in his conduct, stern yet compassionate. Confucius was a man of formidable eloquence, enlightened beyond his time. For a wonderful pictorial related to this great man access on-line: http://confucius.org/main00.htm .

BASIC IDEAS OF CONFUCIANISM

Confucius may have been the first great humanist in recorded history, for his greatest concerns were for humanity & good human relations. He believed in positive influence of human goodness for social & cultural improvement. Confucius himself had a simple moral & political teaching: to love others; to honor one’s parents; to do what is right instead of what is of advantage; to practice reciprocity; to rule by moral example; & so forth. Confucius taught 4 things: literature, personal conduct, being one’s true self & honesty in social relationships. Confucius denounced 4 things: arbitrariness of opinion, dogmatism, narrowmindedness & egotism. The teachings of Confucius were practical & ethical, rather than religious. They are a guide to appropriate & personal behavior & good government, & they stress the virtues of self-discipline & generosity. Confucius held that proper outward acts based on 5 virtues of kindness, uprightness, decorum, wisdom & faithfulness constitute the whole of human duty. Inherent in Confucian thought is the belief in the importance of maintaining harmony & balance in the body. Two potentially conflicting forces are thought to occur in the world: yin & yang. It is critical that these dimensions of function be kept in balance to achieve & maintain a good & productive life. His view of government was paternalistic, & he was a proponent that all individuals observe carefully their duties to the state. Confucius’s basic ideas are best represented in table that can be accessed at: http://crab.rutgers.edu/~scharme/confucius.htm .

Although the philosphy of Confucius is quite complex, there are basically 5 teachings essentials to Confucianism:

Œ The identity of politics & ethics: ritual & music embody the entire aim of social order, all government can be reduced to ceremony, accepts law as belonging to government but measures success in ruling by how little is necessary to apply it.

Li, or the rationalized social order: ritual, propriety, good manners, ideal social order with everything in its place & rationalization in feudal order, belief of conformity & authority in the past.

Ž Humanism: kindness, state when man is truly himself, we should not be diverted from human

affairs by matters which do not concern us, attention is to the human realm, “The measure of man

is man.”

Personal cultivation as the basis of world order: a nation of good sons & brothers makes an

orderly & peaceful nation, habits of love & respect in the home extend to others & to the state.

The intellectual upper class: theory of imitation, the kind & gentle man is a superior & princely

man, the gentleman loves learning & is calm / at ease with his own conduct, the power of

example.

Within these teachings are 5 characters that represent concepts in Confucianism:

Œ “JEN” BENEVOLENCE

“YI” RIGHTEOUSNESS

Ž “CHUNG” LOYALTY

“HSIA” FILIAL PIETY

“TE” VIRTUE

Four major works – The Analects, The Great Learning, The Doctrine of the Mean & the Works of Mencius – furnish the foundation of the Ju (roo) philosophy, the name given to the teachings of Confucius. Some 19 works in all are credited to Confucius as author or editor. After 2 millennia the teachings have come down to us in many routes, subject to interpretations of the teacher’s disciples & their followers. For on-line reading of these works access: http://mockingbird.creighton.edu/worldlit/lit/confu.html .

HISTORICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL CONTEXT

The scholarly tradition envisioned by Confucius can be traced to the sage kings of antiquity. Although the earliest dynasty confirmed is that of the Shang Dynasty (18^th-12^th century B.C.), the historical period that Confucius claimed as relevant is much earlier. Confucius may have initiated a cultural process known in the West as Confucianism, but he & his followers considered themselves part of a “scholarly tradition,” that has its roots two millennia previously when a civilized world was created through moral persuasion. Confucius’s hero was the Duke of Chou. The Duke refined the feudal system that was based on blood ties, marriage alliances, old covenants, newly negotiated contracts & mutual dependence. Solidarity is achieved by ritual observance, not by legal constraint. Heaven to the Chou kings was a generalized anthropomorphic God with no guarantee that descendants would be king. This emphasis on benevolent rulership was a both a reaction to the collapse of the Shang Dynasty & an affirmation of a deep-rooted worldview. The Chou kings were able to control their kingdom for several centuries, but by 771 B.C. their power passed into the hands of the feudal lords. By Confucius’s time the feudal ritual system had been undermined & there was a profound sense of moral decline. Confucius’s response was to address himself to the learning of being human. In doing so he attempted to redefine & revitalize the institutions that had been vital to political & social order: family, school, community, state, kingdom. Confucius didn’t accept the status quo, which held that wealth & power spoke the loudest. He believed that virtue, both as a personal quality & a requirement for leadership was essential for individual dignity, communal solidarity & political order.

Although Confucius was important to 18^th-century philosophies as the example of an enlightened moralist independent of revealed religion, his thoughts was seen as irrelevant to serious philosophy. It was assumed that a sage expressing himself in brief & scattered dicta was not a true philosopher. However, in the present century, Western philosophy has begun to question its own schemes, & searched to ancient thinkers for revealing alternatives. Today Confucius is relevant to contemporary philosophy.

An excellent comparison of Confucianism & Western philosophy is illustrated in an on-line paper that can be accessed at: http://www.friesian.com/confuci.htm . The table embedded in this paper is divided in categories that are familiar from the structure of ethics in Western philosophy. While many Westerners think of Chinese philosophy as being mystical or intuitionistic (which is more like what is found in Taoism), Confucianism is really much more rationalistic than Western thought. Confucian ethics are clear & uncompromising, much like Immanuel Kant & Christianity.

Another interested note in relation to Western culture is the absolute lack of metaphysics in Confucian thought. Confucianism has shown that it is possible to conduct one’s life without recourse to metaphysical speculation. After 2,500 years Western thinking appears, reluctantly & very gradually, to be coming round to the same point of view!

A puzzling & noteworthy aspect of the teachings of Confucius is his fluctuating attitude between a faith that Heaven will protect his mission & despair that Heaven has abandoned him. Confucius did not intend to found a new religion. There is considerable irony in this, not only because Confucianism later became one of the major religions of China, but in comparison to the life of Socrates, who was born just nine years after Confucius died. Although Socrates viewed his philosophy as a divine mission, he was put to death for not believing in them. Confucius who later became a god, the patron of scholars & students, never talked about the gods!

In many interpretations of this ancient philosophy, there are references to Socrates & Christ. Confucius was essentially a moral teacher with the core of his teaching a familiar ring: virtue means to love one another. Confucius articulated this, humanity’s most profound moral sentiment, more than 500 years before the birth of Christ. Yet it was not intended to be a religious principle. Confucius appears to have believed that the universe contained a power for the good, which some believe as faith of the highest order. Confucius praised the man who believed in heaven, but he considered most religious practices to be superstitious. On the other hand, he delighted in ritual & saw its effects to be beneficial! In this, Confucius bears a resemblance to Socrates! In fact, some have likened Confucius to a Socratic Christ!

The study of Confucianism will be of interest to people of the Western world, in helping to understand Chines ethos & mores. Today Confucianism meets a great rival – Western thought / life, the industrial age, modern political science & economics. But as a system of humanist culture, as a fundamentalist viewpoint concerning the conduct of life & of society, I believe it will hold its own!

Confucius held a radical view that all who possessed the depth & desire to learn deserved the opportunity of formal education. For this reason, his birthday September 28^th, is celebrated as Teacher’s Day & is a national holiday in China.

EXPLORING CONFUCIANISM IN NURSING

How do the teachings of this great thinker of the past bear relevance to the world of nursing today? First the concept of knowledge must be addressed. Today knowledge is more than seeking factual information. It is a discovery that is always changing, whereby abstract thought is linked to the truth. Knowledge is a sophisticated integration of the experience with the process. This integration is essential for us to be able to “act knowledge.” Acting knowledge is the outcome of the integration of thoughts & the critical analysis in an experience. It is the translation of what you know into what you do. Within nursing, acting knowledge combines the science of nursing (empirical knowledge), moral reasoning (ethical knowing), aesthetics (aesthetic knowing), self & relationships (personal knowing). Within nursing, the opportunity to “act knowledge” is one of the most significant aspects of our roles as nurses. By acting knowledge, we can engage fully in the moment, in the patient & family, attentive to all cues, & then responding decisively with clarity of thought & reasoning. The result is a harmony of the person, environment & the mind in understanding. Raising our individual & collective consciousness regarding the importance of nursing practice exemplified by “acting knowledge” will benefit our patients & profession. The art of applying static knowledge to the dynamics of life resonates from ancient Confucius to today. How then can “acting knowledge” be cultivated? Each of us has a responsibility to ourselves & to our profession to become a visionary, to become a teacher, a role model, and a mentor to fellow nurses. As Benner (1984) described in becoming a nurse in From Novice to Expert, we each move along a path from novice to expert. Role modeling offers a comparison to the role of teachers in the time of Confucius. Leading by example was believed to be the catalyst for societal transformation, just as nursing moves forward towards a stronger profession & period of enlightenment. The teachings of the Master continue to provide challenge to nursing today. “For it is not the knowing that is difficult. It is the acting that is difficult.”

Another element of Confucianism relating to nursing is morality. Confucius believed that rationalization of the social order was achieved through an ethical approach & should be based on personal cultivation. Confucius’s superior man was humane & thoughtful; motivated by the desire to do what is good rather than by personal profit. One of the recorded sayings of Confucius is an answer to a request from a disciple for a singe word that could serve as a guide to conduct one’s entire life. Confucius replied: “Is not reciprocity such a word? What you do now want done to yourself, do not do to others.” This rule is considered the supreme principle of Confucian ethics. Confucius’s sentiment of morality resonates with AACN Certification Corporation’s conceptualization that when synergy exists between patients’’ characteristics & nurses’ competencies, the outcomes are mutually enhancing. The Synergy Model (1998) implicates that the nurses’ competency of advocacy & moral agency practiced within a synergistic relationship would strengthen both the patient & the nurse. Within this model, the competency of moral agency is defined as working on another’s behalf & representing the concerns of the patient, family & community. As nurses our sense of moral agency is challenged daily. The current realities of clinical ethics include culturally diverse patients, high acuity, shrinking resources, rapid reorganizations, & multiple technological & social changes. These changes mandate that we serve as advocates for our patients & families more frequently that in recent decades & simultaneously demands a more diverse & sophisticated level of advocacy. Confucius would have liked the Synergy Model! Perhaps we should once again follow the basic teachings of the Master as we brace ourselves for a more ethically challenging 21^st century.

CLOSING COMMENTS

I think we can learn a lot from this great man of ancient times. Although his teachings are of somewhat an idealist view, he had the right idea – that we should live in harmony with each other & more importantly within ourselves. I leave you with an excerpt from The Wisdom of Confucius entitled: EULOGY OF CONFUCIUS: “Oh, how great is the divine moral law of the Sage. Overflowing & illimitable, it gives birth & life to all created things & towers high up the very heavens. How magnificent it is! How imposing the 300 principles & 3,000 rules of conduct! They await the man who can put the system info practice. Hence it is said: Unless there be the highest moral character, the highest moral law cannot be realized.”