A civil right is an enforceable right or privilege, which if interfered with by another gives rise to an action for
injury. Examples of civil rights are freedom of speech, press, assembly, the right to vote, freedom from
involuntary servitude, and the right to equality in public places. Discrimination occurs when the civil rights of
an individual are denied or interfered with because of their membership in a particular group or class. Statutes
have been enacted to prevent discrimination based on a persons race, sex, religion, age, previous condition of
servitude, physical limitation, national origin and in some instances sexual preference.The most important expansion of civil rights in the United States was the enactment of the Thirteenth and
Fourteenth Amendments. The Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery throughout the United States. See U.S.
Const. amend. XIII. In response to the 13th Amendment, various states enacted "black codes" which were
intended to limit the civil rights of the newly free slaves. In 1868 the 14th Amendment was passed to counter
the "black codes" and ensure that no state "shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or
immunities of the citizens of the United States . . . [or] deprive any person of life, liberty, or property without
due process of law, [or] deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws." See U.S.
Const. amend. XIV. Congress was also given the power by section five of the Fourteenth Amendment to pass
any laws needed for its enforcement. During the "reconstruction era" that followed Congress enacted
numerous civil rights statutes. Many of these statutes are still in force today and protect individuals from
discrimination and from the deprivation of their civil rights. Section 1981 of Title 42 (Equal Rights Under the
Law) protects individuals from discrimination based on race in making and enforcing contracts, participating in
lawsuits, and giving evidence. See 42 U.S.C. § 1981.Other statutes, derived from acts of the reconstruction era,
that protect against discrimination include: Civil Action For Deprivation of Rights (see 42 U.S.C. § 1983)
Conspiracies to Interfere With Civil Rights (see 42 U.S.C. § 1985); Conspiracy Against Rights of Citizens (see 18
U.S.C. § 241); Deprivation of Rights Under Color of Law, (see 18 U.S.C. § 242); The Jurisdictional Statue for Civil
Rights Cases (see 28 U.S.C. § 1443); Peonage Abolished (see 42 U.S.C. § 1994).The most prominent civil rights legislation since reconstruction is the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Decisions of the
Supreme Cour, at the time limited Congressional enforcement of the 14th Amendment to state action. (Since
1964 the Supreme Court has expanded the reach of the 14th Amendment in some situations to individuals
discriminating on their own). Therefore, in order to reach the actions of individuals, Congress, using its power
to regulate interstate commerce, enacted the Civil Rights Act of 1964 under . Discrimination based on "race,
color, religion, or national origin" in public establishments that had a connection to interstate commerce or was
supported by the state is prohibited. See 42 U.S.C. § 2000a. Public establishments include places of public
accommodation (e.g., hotels, motels, trailer parks), restaurants, gas stations, bars, taverns, and places of
entertainment in general. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and subsequent legislation also declared a strong
legislative policy against discrimination in public schools and colleges which aided in desegregation. Title VI of
the civil rights act prohibits discrimination in federally funded programs. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act
prohibits employment discrimination where the employer is engaged in interstate commerce. Congress has
passed numerous other laws dealing with employment discrimination. See Employment Discrimination.The judiciary, most notably the Supreme Court, plays a crucial role in interpreting the extent of the civil rights.
A single Supreme Court ruling can change the very nature of a right throughout the entire country. Supreme
Court decisions can also affect the manner in which Congress enacts civil rights legislation, as occurred with
the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The federal courts were/are crucial in mandating and supervising school
desegregation programs and other programs established to rectify state or local discrimination.State constitutions, statutes and municipal ordinances provide further protection of civil rights. See, e.g., New
York's Civil Rights Law.The existence of civil rights and liberties are recognized internationally by numerous agreements and
declarations. Often these rights are included in agreements in which nations pledge themselves to the general
protection of Human Rights. The United States has recently adhered to the most notable international
agreement on civil rights: The International Convenant on Civil and PoliticalRights. (http://www.law.cornell.edu/topics/civil_rights.html)