3. Define digestion and describe why it is a necessary process.
4. Explain how anhydro bonds are formed and describe the role of hydrolysis in digestion.
5. Distinguish between intracellular and extracellular digestion.
6. Explain why intracellular digestion must be sequestered in a food vacuole, and give examples of organisms which digest their food in vacuoles.
7. Define gastrovascular cavity and explain why extracellular digestive cavities are advantageous.
8. Using Hydra as an example, describe how a gastrovascular cavity functions in both digestion and distribution of nutrients.
9. List major animal phyla which use gastrovascular cavities for digestion.
10. Describe some distinct advantages that complete digestive tracts have over gastrovascular cavities, and list the major animal phyla with alimentary tracts.
11. Define peristalsis and describe its role in the digestive tract.
12. Describe how salivation is controlled and list the functions of saliva.
13. Describe the role of salivary amylase in digestion.
14. Describe the sequence of events which occur as a result of the swallowing reflex.
15. Describe the function of the esophagus, and explain how peristalsis in the esophagus is controlled.
16. Describe the role of the cardiac and pyloric sphincters.
17. List the three types of secretory cells found in stomach epithelium and what substances they secrete.
18. Recall the normal pH of the stomach, and explain the function of stomach acid.
19. Describe the function of pepsin.
20. Explain why the stomach normally does not digest itself.
21. Explain how pepsin and acid secretion are regulated and describe the roles of the hormones gastrin and enterogastrone.
22. Describe the cause of ulcers, and explain why they are frequently found in the duodenum.
23. Explain how chyme is moved through the small intestine.
24. Describe the sequence of events which occur in response to acid chyme entering the duodenum and include the roles of: a. Secretin b. Bicarbonate c. Cholecystokinin (CCK) d. Gall bladder e. Bile f. Pancreatic enzymes g. Enterogastrone
25. Describe how pancreatic zymogens for proteolytic enzymes are activated in the duodenum and include the role of the intestinal enzyme enterokinase.
26. Describe enzymatic digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids, including the reactants and products for each enzymatic reaction and whether they occur in the: a. Oral cavity b. Stomach c. Lumen of small intestine d. Brush border of small intestine
27. Explain the function of bile, describe where it is produced and stored, and describe its composition.
28. State whether the lumen of the digestive tract is technically inside or outside the body.
29. Explain where most nutrient absorption occurs.
30. Explain why the many folds, villi, and microvilli are important in the small intestine.
31. Describe how specific nutrients are absorbed across the intestinal epithelium and across the capillary or lacteal wall, and indicate whether the transport is with or against the concentration gradient.
32. Explain what happens to glycerol and fatty acids after they are absorbed into the intestinal epithelium, and describe the fate of chylomicrons and lipoproteins.
33. Explain the function of the hepatic portal vein.
34. Explain where in the digestive tract that most reabsorption of water occurs.
35. Describe the composition of feces, and explain what the main source of vitamin K is for humans.
36. Give examples of vertebrates with the following digestive adaptations and explain how these adaptations are related to diet: a. Variation in dentition b. Variation in length of the digestive tract c. Fermentation chambers
37. Explain why animals need a nutritionally adequate diet
38. Describe the effects of undernourishment or starvation.
39. List some of the risks of obesity.
40. Distinguish between malnourished and undernourished.
41. List four classes of essential nutrients, and describe what happens if they are deficient in the diet.
42. List and distinguish between water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins, and explain how they are used by the body.
43. Describe the dietary sources, major body functions and effects of deficiency for the following required minerals in the human diet: calcium, phosphorus, sulfur, potassium, chlorine, sodium, magnesium, and iron.