Chapter 42

1. List the major animal phyla with gastrovascular cavities, and explain why they do not need a circulatory system.
2. Distinguish between open and closed circulatory systems.
3. Using an arthropod as an example, describe the circulation of hemolymph.
4. Explain how hemolymph differs from blood.
5. Using an earthworm as an example, describe circulation of blood, and explain how it exchanges materials with interstitial fluid.
6. List the components of a vertebrate cardiovascular system.
7. Distinguish between an artery and a vein.
8. Using diagrams, compare and contrast the circulatory schemes of birds, amphibians, and mammals.
9. Distinguish between pulmonary and systemic circuits, and explain the function of each.
10. Explain the advantage of double circulation over a single circuit.
11. Trace a drop of blood through the human heart, listing the structures it passes through in route.
12. List the four heart valves, describe their location, and explain their function.
13. Distinguish between systole and diastole.
14. Describe the events of the cardiac cycle, and explain what causes the first and second heart sounds.
15. Define heart murmur, and explain its cause.
16. Define pulse, and describe the relationship between size and pulse rate among different mammals.
17. Define cardiac output, and explain how it is affected by a change in heart rate or stroke volume.
18. Define myogenic, and describe some unique properties of cardiac muscle which allows it to contract in a coordinated manner.
19. Define pacemaker, and describe the location of two patches of nodal tissue in the human heart.
20. Describe the origin and pathway of the action potential (cardiac impulse) in the normal human heart.
21. Explain why it is important that the cardiac impulse be delayed at the AV node.
22. Explain how the pace of the SA node can be modulated by sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves, changes in temperature, physical conditioning, and exercise.
23. Compare the structures of arteries and veins, and explain how differences in their structures are related to differences in their functions.
24. Describe how capillary structure differs from other vessels, and explain how this structure relates to its function.
25. Recall the law of continuity, and explain why blood flow through capillaries is substantially slower than it is through arteries and veins.
26. Define blood pressure and describe how it is measured.
27. Explain how peripheral resistance and cardiac output affect blood pressure.
28. Explain how blood returns to the heart, even though it must travel from the lower extremities against gravity.
29. Define microcirculation and explain how blood flow through capillary beds is regulated.
30. Explain how osmotic pressure and hydrostatic pressure regulate the exchange of fluid and solutes across capillaries.
31. Describe the composition of lymph, and explain how the lymphatic system helps the normal functioning of the circulatory system.
32. Explain why protein deficiency can cause edema.
33. Explain how the lymphatic system helps defend the body against infection.
34. Explain why vertebrate blood is classified as connective tissue.
35. List the components of blood and describe a function for each.
36. Outline the formation of erythrocytes from stem cells to destruction by phagocytic cells.
37. Outline the sequence of events that occur during blood clotting, and explain what prevents spontaneous clotting in the absence of injury.
38. Explain how atherosclerosis affects the arteries.
39. Distinguish between thrombus and embolus; atherosclerosis and arteriosclerosis; lowdensity lipoproteins (LDLs) and high-density lipoproteins (HDLs).
40. List the factors that have been correlated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.
41. Describe the general requirements for a respiratory surface and list the variety of respiratory organs adapted for this purpose.
42. Describe respiratory adaptations of aquatic animals.
43. Describe countercurrent exchange, and explain why it is more efficient than concurrent flow of water and blood.
44. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of air as a respiratory medium, and explain how insect tracheal systems are adapted for efficient gas exchange in a terrestrial environment.
45. For the human respiratory system, describe the movement of air through air passageways to the alveolus, listing the structures it must pass through on the journey.
46. Define negative pressure breathing, and explain how respiratory movements in humans ventilate the lungs.
47. Define the following lung volumes, and give a normal range of capacities for the human male: a. Tidal volume b. Vital capacity c. Residual volume
48. Explain how breathing is controlled.
49. List three barriers oxygen must cross from the alveolus into the capillaries, and explain the advantage of having millions of alveoli in the lungs.
50. Describe how oxygen moves from the alveolus into the capillary, and explain why a pressure gradient is necessary.
51. Distinguish between hemocyanin and hemoglobin.
52. Describe the structure of hemoglobin, explain the result of cooperative binding, and state how many oxygen molecules a saturated hemoglobin molecule can carry.
53. Draw the Hb-oxygen dissociation curve, explain the significance of its shape, and explain how the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen changes with oxygen concentration.
54. Describe the Bohr effect, and explain how the oxygen dissociation curve shifts with changes in carbon dioxide concentration and changes in pH.
55. Explain the advantage of the Bohr shift.
56. Describe how carbon dioxide is picked up at the tissues and deposited in the lungs, describe the role of carbonic anhydrase, and state the form most of the carbon dioxide is in as it is transported.
57. Explain how hemoglobin acts as a buffer.
58. Describe respiratory adaptations of diving mammals including the role of myoglobin.