2. PRELIMINARY RESULTS FROM THE 1998-99
FIELD SEASONS IN LUWU BY THE OXIS PROJECT
(ORIGINS OF COMPLEX SOCIETY IN SOUTH SULAWESI)
F. David Bulbeck, Dept. of Archaeology and Anthropology, Australian National University and Bagyo Prasetyo, Bidang Prasejarah, Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi Nasional

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Introduction
OXIS studies the beginnings of large-scale societies among the Bugis, in South Sulawesi, by testing the archaeological expectations deduced from an anthropological interpretation of the textual and oral sources on South Sulawesi's early history. Previous philological analysis of Bugis texts by Ian Caldwell (1995, 1998), who is the co-Chief Investigator of OXIS, has shown that the Bugis script was developed at around A.D. 1300. Further, according to Caldwell's ongoing research on the king list of Luwu, which is the northernmost of the Bugis kingdoms, Luwu's first ruler would also have commenced his reign at around A.D. 1300. A similar or an earlier date can be calculated for the inaugural reign of several of the agrarian-focused Bugis kingdoms to the south, e.g. West Soppeng, Wajo and Bone (Caldwell 1988; Bulbeck 1993).

However, Luwu appears to be the only Bugis polity mentioned in the Desawarnana (or Nagarakertagama) written in Java's Majapahit court in A.D. 1365. All of the other identifiable South Sulawesi places-Bantaeng, Makassar, and Selayar-are Makasar-speaking areas (Pigeaud 1962). By at least the 17th century, Luwu had achieved the reputation of being the source of Bugis high culture, and the most ancient Bugis kingdom. In 1888 Van Braam Morris postulated an "I La Galigo" age for Luwu in its heyday, between the tenth to 14th centuries, with reference to the renowned Bugis cycle of epic poetry named the I La Galigo (Mappasunda and Hafid 1992/1993). Christian Pelras' major anthropological synthesis, The Bugis (1996), expounds this early chronology, and the implications that Luwu had developed as a trade-based polity long before the rise of the agrarian kingdoms. But at the other end of the spectrum of views, Bulbeck (1993), following the information in Caldwell (1988), argued that Luwu had originated only in the 14th century, and then expanded rapidly to exert political dominance over much of the South Sulawesi peninsula during the 15th century. Then when the major 16th century kingdoms such as Bone, Wajo and Makassar began to expand, they ran into land previously subject to Luwu, and this turn of events was responsible for giving Luwu its reputation for great antiquity.

These two interpretations of the chronology of Luwu have very different archaeological corrolaries, and so should be readily testable through survey and excavation of pre-Islamic (pre-1605 A.D.) sites. The issue has significant implications for major questions such as whether sociopolitical centralization was contemporary with the introduction of writing to South Sulawesi, or preceded it; the nature and variety of the economies associated with early sociopolitical centalization; and the solidity of the basis for "traditional knowledge", such as Luwu's reputation for chronological priority.

In 1998 we co-directed three field seasons which, at any time, involved approximately 12 South Sulawesi archaeologists (from Balai Arkeologi Ujung Pandang, Suaka Peninggalan Sejarah dan Purbakala Sulawesi Selatan, and Hasanuddin University Archaeology Department). The seasons lasted between 15 April and 10 May, 19 May and 21 June, and finally 26 July and 30 August. Excavations were undertaken at four lowland sites in western Luwu (Sabbang Loang, Pinanto, Tirosoe, Pattimang Tua), 11 sites along the coastal plane of eastern Luwu (Salabu, Patande, Bola Merajae, Taipa, Kuburan Ussu, Ussu 1, Manu Manue, Turunan Damar, Katue, Poloe, Tampinna), and four sites at Matano, north of the eastern coastal plane (Rahampuu 1, Pandai Besi, Lemogola, Paangkaburu). Background on Luwu's late Holocene prehistory is provided by the apparently Neolithic site of Bola Merajae, and the Paleometallic phases at Sabbang Loang and Katue. The major historical sites with a pre-Islamic occupation are Pattimang Tua and Pinanto. Pre-Islamic origins are also likely for the ironworking at Rahampuu 1, and the cemetery at Paangkaburu.

A last field season was stage between 25 February and 13 March 1999, with some particularly enlightening results. Test pits were excavated at Benteng Tompottikka in Palopo, at Benteng Baebunta near Pinanto, at Benteng Wotu, at Utti Batue and Dadekoe 2 near Pattimang Tua in Malangke, and at Sukoyu, Pontanoa Bangka and Nuha on the northern shore of Lake Matano. Currently, we can give only our preliminary impressions from this last field season. Further, laboratory analysis of the materials excavated samples during both the 1998 and 1999 seasons has barely begun. Nonetheless we will attempt to put interested readers "in the picture" with the most informative summary we can provide at the moment. This will take the form of presenting the five current major working hypotheses of OXIS, spelling out the archaeological expectations, and summarizing the current evidence for or against.