There are many theories that have been put forward to explain the way in which people process information. The theories started off as very basic models which involved an input, some form of decision making and an output. These initial theories were then developed and the use of feedback was introduced. Most models were based on computational ideas and the working of the human mind was seen as very similar to that of a computer. In recent years however these theories have been subject to a lot of criticism in the way that they explain information processing with a lack of thought about how humans perceive and act on information in the real world.

" The study of information processing has momentum and prestige but it has not yet committed itself to any conception of human nature that could apply beyond the confines of the laboratory" Neisser (1976, p.6)

These theories also neglect the understanding of how people process information within the natural environment whilst undertaking purposeful activity. Stelmach (1982) has suggested that these theories are dependant on reaction times when trying to understand mental processes and while reaction times are an important tool they have been found to be easily affected by external factors. When trying to apply these theories to everyday life the use of reaction times as the sole measure hinders the transfer of the theories into the real world. Stelmach also suggested that the neglect of the actual response is another downfall of these theories of information processing. Most of the theories do little to explain how the response is carried out and just state that a response occurs. It is odd to see how the research into information processing has changed; early theories were primarily concerned with the product or output but as the research has progressed the emphasis has switched to the cognitive processes which occur prior to the output. Stelmach suggest that researchers should place more emphasis on motor issues and feels that future research should be directed towards both the preparatory processes and the effector products.

On the positive side these models have provided us with a basis by which we can explain the performance of skills but again they shed little light on the changes that take place that allow learning to occur. As a result of the criticism of these theories several alternative theories have been developed to combat the inadequacies of the older theories.

The dynamical systems approach has evolved as an alternative to the hierarchical control perspective, which was primarily concerned with motor programs. The hierarchical control perspective stated that with some tasks there are two levels of information processing. The lower level is concerned with carrying out the decisions and the higher level is involved in the decision making process. The model then goes on to say that with practice control is shifted from the higher to lower levels freeing up the higher levels for other tasks such as tactics.

The dynamical systems approach however is more concerned with the physical side of information processing. This theory says that people develop new skills by releasing their body parts so that a more fluid motion can be produced.

In the dynamical systems approach this is known as the degrees of freedom problem. The dynamical systems approach suggests that the control of physical movements comes about as a result of the interaction between the body parts and the environment and that is also changes as a result of that interaction. Schmidt & Lee (1999, p.379)

The main emphasis of the dynamical systems approach is the solving of the degrees of freedom problem and finding a way in which the body parts can be organised to carry out the task.

One of the most important researchers in this field was Bernstein who developed his own perspective on the dynamical systems approach, he suggested that when learning a new skill performers try to freeze as many degrees of freedom as possible to try and lock the movement down allowing as few movements as possible. With practise Bernstein suggested that more and degrees of freedom were released leading to a more fluid and free flowing movement. Bernstein suggested that as performers learn the biomechanical constraints placed upon the body are released and replaced with more flexible mechanisms of neural control. This allows for greater accuracy when performing the movement and therefore allows for a greater level of success.

Bernstein also suggested another concept, which allowed for the reorganisation of the degrees of freedom. He suggested that individual degrees of freedom could be coupled together in order to perform the same functional movement as the single units. When this happens the degrees of freedom are said to be coupled and act as coordinative structures, which influence how the independent parts work. There is a lot of controversy in this area with some people suggesting that with practise the

coupled degrees of freedom are released while others believe that with practice

degrees of freedom are coupled allowing for a more fluid accurate movement.

In the ecological approach the individual, environment and the individuals behaviour in the environment all interact and change through time. Control is distributed throughout all three of the these components. The individual attends to certain information in the environment depending on their interpretation or perception of what is important. As the individual becomes more experienced they will change what they attend to in the environment. In this theory the main emphasis is the ability of the individual to restructure their experience in their environment as they draw upon new associations and control their behaviour.

Kugler & Turvey (1986) explained that within the ecological approach action is interpreted as the means by which the learner channels the mapping of information and movement dynamics to meet the demands of the task. Newell (1991) suggested that as skills become more automatic, considerably less thought is given to the completion of the task. This allows skilled performers to attend to other relevant cues in the environment instead of the particular movement.

Many theories have been proposed on the ways in which performers learn some theories build on earlier attempts while others are completely different and provide different ways of thinking. Several theories will be discussed here in order to highlight how people learn and how this may be used to enhance peoples learning.

The basis of the associanist view is about the relationship between a given stimulus and a response, which is produced due to the stimulus. Learning occurs when the stimulus is presented and a certain response is evoked.

Classical conditioning is a basic form of S-R learning and was studied by the Russian psychologist Pavlov. In an experiment conducted by Pavlov he presented food to a hungry dog, ringing a bell a few seconds before giving the dog the food. The smell or sight of food causes a dog to salivate, and is a natural reflex. At first, the bell had no effect on the dog but within a few trials the dog had begun to associate the sound of the bell with food and began to salivate as soon as the bell was sounded, even before the food was produced. The main point to recognise when studying Pavlov's experiment is that no new behaviour has been learnt only to produce the same behaviour from a different stimulus. This provides us with the question of how we learn new behaviours or skills.

An alternative approach was provided by Skinner in his theory of operant conditioning. Skinner suggested that even though much of our behaviour is not reflexive, it could still be conditioned, but not by classical methods. In his theory Skinner named naturally learned behaviour operant behaviour, if this learned behaviour was rewarded in some way Skinner suggested that this would increase the likelihood that the behaviour would be produced again.

As well as positive reinforcement Skinner also suggested that the opposite negative reinforcement could also strengthen S-R bonds. Negative reinforcement is a little more difficult to understand and is best illustrated in an example.

The stimulus-response theory has become very useful in terms of how people become skilful at a particular task but many psychologists do not believe it to be the whole picture. They argue that the extent of human learning cannot be solely explained by S-R bonding. The cognitive theories are alternative theories, which place greater emphasis on thought processes and on understanding how complex concepts are related.

Tolman (1946) suggested that learners are motivated towards achieving goals, which they are aware of through purpose and expectation of achieving the goals. In sport these are the skills and understandings that the particular activity is made up of. Learners progress towards their goal, for example, intercepting a pass in football by recognising and responding to cues using their past experiences as a guide. By recognising and utilising cues Tolman suggested that learners formed a cognitive map of the activity which develops in complexity as the learner becomes more proficient at the skill.

Another group of psychologists known as the Gestaltists (Gestalt is German for 'form' or 'shape') put forward the Gestalt theory of learning which included two main principles. The first suggested that the learning of new skills could be improved by using insight or intuition to solve a problem.

When looking at Gestalt theory it is apparent that the theory is flawed in the fact that it suggests that all skills should be taught as a whole. From experience it is obvious that some skills are better learned when they are broken down into phases that can be learned separately.

The social learning theory explains how our behaviours can be moulded by the behaviour of other people. The most obvious application of this theory is in the use of demonstrations by coaches when teaching learners new skills. Demonstration is a particularly useful tool for coaches and young learners are also involved in social learning when they copy their favourite footballer. One downfall of social learning however, is that coaches cannot always

control what their players are learning, whilst watching their footballing hero they might learn a lot about skill but they may also pick up bad habits too.

Bandura (1977) suggested that there are four parts to social learning

- Attention and retention, which relate to the acquisition of skill.

- Motor reproduction and motivation, determining performance.

Using this model coaches often demand that players attend to instructions or provide cues about how best to perform the skill.

Retention is the process by which learners remember how to perform certain skills. Coaches can help this process by repetition and making practises varied and enjoyable to help reinforce the movement in the learner’s mind. The coach is also important in motor reproduction, which refers to the learners attempt to reproduce the skill. It is vitally important that the coach has performed the skill properly and also that the learner has the physical ability to perform the skill. Learners are always motivated by things which interest them and coaches can capitalise on this by understanding what motivates their players and using reinforcement as a tool for motivation.

Adams (1971; 1976) put forward a theory of motor learning in which feedback and error detection were vitally important. Adams suggested that the movement pattern required to perform a skill was selected and performed by a memory trace, which was a simple motor program that had been developed through previous experiences. Adams stated that the memory trace grew in strength as a result of practice and rehearsal because the memory trace was determined by the similarity between the trace and the movement.

Whilst performing a skill a comparison takes place between the movement taking place and another trace called the perceptual trace. Adams suggested that the perceptual trace was used for evaluating the correctness of the movement generated by the memory trace and the feedback gained during the movement. When the perceptual trace detected an error between the trace and the movement it would produce error signals that initiate the corrective process. Adams viewed the perceptual trace as a mechanism that could be developed as a result of error information received during performance of the task (feedback). The learner can then use the feedback from the previous attempt to modify the next execution.

When looking at Adam's theory it appears that it provides a good base behind the way we learn and develop skills. However there are some points that mean Adam's Theory cannot be a complete theory of the way in which we learn. The main flaw with Adam's theory is that it does not suggest how a learner can perform a new task, which he/she has never performed before. Adam's suggested that the memory trace was developed as a result of practise and rehearsal so what mechanism do learners use the first time they perform a task?

Another problem with Adam's theory is the fact that it suggests that there is a different memory and perceptual trace for every movement a human being can produce when in reality the central nervous system would never be able to store this amount of information. It is as a result of these criticisms that other theories using Adam's model as a base were developed one such theory was Schmidt's Schema Theory.

One of the main problems Schmidt's theory addressed was the fact that Adam's theory required each movement to be stored as a different trace. Schmidt suggested that what is stored in the memory is a general program that contains a set of rules that determines the performance of the skill called a schema. This general program can be adapted and ran differently depending on the skill that was being performed and the situation the performer is in.

The schema consists of two parts - recall and recognition and in this sense is similar to Adam's theory. The recall schema is responsible for the production of the movement and is made up of information that is stored in the long-term memory. The information consists of the initial conditions of the movement for example, where the player is in relation to the ball before kicking it. The recall schema also contains information concerning the specifications of the response, for example, what the player has to do and how they are going to achieve it. The recognition schema is responsible for evaluating the movement and Schmidt suggested that this information was stored temporarily for comparison with the recall

Schema. The information that is stored consists of two parts

- the sensory consequences, i.e. the kinaesthetic feel of the movement

- the response outcomes, i.e. what happened as a result of the movement.

When the movement is completed all these elements are stored in the long-term memory for use in future movements which may be similar or the same.

Schmidt's theory also allowed the inclusion of the transfer of skills, which is discussed in more detail later. For example, if a player has learnt to drop kick a football, the schema the player uses can be adapted to allow that player to learn the new skill of drop kicking a rugby ball.

Schmidt also developed some important implications for coaches when teaching players new skills. Schmidt emphasised the importance of not spending too long practising a specific move such as kicking a ball, over the same distance and direction. He suggested that the learner should be able to practise the skill over varying distances and directions so that the schema is developed and can take into account all possible situations. This is known as variability of practice.

Many people have noticed that learners appear to pass through relatively distinct phases as they practise a skill. Learning as a two stage process was first proposed by Snoddy (1926). According to Snoddy the adaptation phase was involved with the development of the neuromuscular action required to carry out the task, while the facilitation stage was involved with the development of the action and improving its efficiency. Other two stage theories were put forward by Adams (1971) and Fitts (1964). It was Fitts & Posner (1967) who made reference to a three phase view of learning. The three phases are known as the cognitive phase, associative phase and the autonomous phase, all of which will be discussed in more detail below.

When a person sets out to learn a new task their main concern is how the task is actually performed. The learner practises various strategies to try and achieve the task and so performance at this stage is often very inconsistent.

Strategies that work well are reinforced and so retained more readily than inappropriate strategies. In this phase performance gains are particularly rapid and are thought of as verbal cognitive, in terms of what to do rather than specific motor programmes.

In this phase the learner is primarily concerned with the refinement of the way in which they perform the task. The learner will begin to make minor adjustments in how the task is performed in order to perfect the performance. At this stage performance gains become more gradual with the phase lasting many days or weeks. The verbal aspects of the task will no longer be present with the learner concentrating on how to perform the action rather than which action to perform. In terms of our young footballer at this stage he/she has learned the simple parts of the skill such as pulling the leg back, bending the knee etc. but has yet to master the more difficult concepts of where to make contact with the ball and contacting the ball with the instep. At this stage the coach should be concerned with providing feedback that whose specific focus should be on both knowledge of results ( was the goal achieved?) and knowledge of performance (was the movement performed correctly?). This allows the association of kinaesthetic feedback (how the movement felt) with the outcome of the movement.

After a prolonged period of time the performer will enter the autonomous phase. In this phase the task has become to some extent automatic. The learner is now able to carry out the task with minimal interference from other simultaneous activities. At this stage the performer is able to concentrate on other aspects of the task such as strategy. At this stage our footballer is able to perform the skill of kicking a ball and can now concentrate on the tactics involved and move the skill into a game situation. The footballer is now more concerned with where to kick the ball rather than how to kick the ball. At this stage the coach no longer needs to provide extensive feedback as the learner is able to judge his/her own performance, however any feedback that is given can now be very detailed and specific.

Transfer can be defined as, "the gain or loss in the capability for performance in one task as a result of practice or experience on some other task"

Schmidt & Lee (1999, p.389)

To apply this to a learner we could take a young footballer who has just decided to take up the game of rugby. You could then ask the question whether previous experience in football would be helpful or detrimental to the learner taking up rugby. If it happens that the having previous experience in football assists the development of skills in playing rugby it is said that the skills learned in football have transferred to the skills involved in football. An example of this might be the kicking element in rugby; previous experience in football will obviously help the learner to quickly develop the kicking skills required in rugby.

There are four types of transfer

- Positive and negative

- Proactive and retroactive

Positive transfer occurs when experience from one task helps the performance of another task and negative transfer occurs when experience in one task is detrimental to the learning of another task.

Proactive transfer occurs when tasks that have been previously learned influence the learning of a new task. Retroactive transfer occurs when the practising of a new task helps the performance of a previously learned task.

The transfer of learning should feature heavily when a coach is designing practice sessions for his players. The transfer of learning does not only apply when talking about two separate sports which influence a persons ability to perform each. The transfer of learning can also apply from training sessions to a match environment. Coaches often use this type of learning in the form of drills, which mimic specific parts of the match environment. In using drills the coach is not particularly concerned with the way in which the player performs them but only that by practising them some transfer of learning will occur that helps the player in the match environment.

Another example is when a coach breaks a skill down into smaller parts in the hope that practice on the individual parts will transfer to the performance of the whole task.

When designing practise sessions the coach can use the information that has been discussed above to optimise the learning of their players.

The many theories of information processing provide the coach with information on how people process information and if utilised correctly can be used to enhance the learning of their players. The dynamical systems approach tells us that learners develop new skills by freeing up body parts leading to a smoother more fluid action. It is therefore important for the coach to recognise the differing physical make up and abilities that each of his/her players possesses in order to make practice more effective. There is no point in setting a player a task that he/she does not have the physical make up to perform as this will result in the player losing motivation due to his/her failure to complete the task.

The ecological approach teaches us that performers learn from their environment and with practice pick up relevant cues from the environment and act upon them. The coach can facilitate this learning by providing his/her players with a stimulating environment in which to learn. By varying the environment and altering the cues available to the players the coach can develop the players ability to pick up on relevant cues and disregard irrelevant ones.

Learning theories also provide valuable information for the coach on the way in which people learn and by using this information the coach can develop his/her players learning more effectively. By giving players praise when they perform a task correctly the coach reinforces the good behaviour and increases its likelihood of being produced again. So when a player plays a good pass in training the coach should provide praise so that the players feels good about themselves and as a result will strive to produce the good behaviour more often.

The coach can also develop a player’s skill by providing relevant feedback on the outcome and production of movement concerned with a particular skill. In Schmidts

Schema theory feedback plays an important role in the player’s development of skill whereby they use it to make adjustments to their movement in order to perfect skills.

The coach should pay particular attention to the stages of learning put forward by Fitts & Posner. This suggest three distinct phases that a learner will pass through from beginner through to being totally competent at a skill.

In the first stage, which is known as the cognitive stage, the coach should be using demonstrations as a tool for learning so that the player has a model of movement, which they can work towards. Feedback also plays an important part at this stage of learning, as the player more often than not cannot evaluate his/her own movement.

In the associative phase the primary concern for the coach is giving feedback which can be linked to the kinaesthetic feel of the movement. In this way the player can make comparisons between the feel of the movement and how the movement was performed and also the outcome of the movement.

In the autonomous phase the learner has mastered the skill and the coach should now be concerned with providing the player with tactical information that can relate a match situation. This can involve team drills whereby the players develop the skill within a game situation and learn how to use the ball effectively when passing.

The coach should also consider the transfer of learning and how the drills carried out in training can enable the transfer of skills into a game situation. By setting up shooting or defending drills the coach will enable the players to learn skills which can be then transferred into a game situation enabling the players to become more effective in matches. By breaking down skills into parts the coach can make the learning of new skills easier for the beginner and once he/she has mastered the separate parts, the skills he/she has learned will transfer into their performance of the whole skill.

From the information that has been provided it is obvious that through the application of the information on the ways in which people process information and learn new skills, coaches can become more effective at teaching their players new skills. By gaining a little knowledge of the theories and hypotheses involved coaches can use them to exploit the way in which people learn and make their players better learners.

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