BRITISH
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES


The history of this instrument, together with the gradual improvements that have been made in its construction, is singularly identical with the rise and progress of modern music itself. The instrument that immediately preceded it was the harpsichord, in which the wire was twitched by a small tongue of crow-quill attached to an apparatus called a jack, moved by the key. The tone thus produced has been not inaptly described as "a scratch with a sound at the end of it." This instrument, although great ingenuity was displayed in its manufacture, was very monotonous, and afforded the player no scape except for execution, and that of a most mechanical and soulless kind. At length in an auspicious hour for the interests of music, the idea arose that by causing the key to strike the string instead of pulling it, the tone might be considerably improved, and the general capabilities of the instrument otherwise extended. This contrivance opened an entirely new field to the player, by giving him the power of expression in a ddition to that of execution ; for by varying the touch a greater or less degree of force could be given to the blow on the string, whereby the effects of piano and forte might be produced at pleasure. This was the great feature of the new invention, and gave to the improved instrument the name of pianoforte, whcih it has ever since retained. The merit of the invention has been ascribed by turns to the Germans, Italians, French, and the English ; but I think that in my 'History of the Pianoforte,' I have satisfactorily proved that the claim of priority is in favour of Bartolomeo Cristofali, of Padua, who made the first pianoforte (in reality a harpsichord with hammers) in or shortly after 1710. There can be no doubt, however, that important improvements in the instrument were subsequently made by German manufacturers, Silbermann, Stein, and others, and that to an Englishman, the Rev. W. Mason, the well-known poet, is to be ascribed the contrivance of detaching the hammer from the key, and giving it only a momentary connection when the key is struck by the finger. Mason's valuable improvement was adopted by the English makers, who became celebrated for the superiority of their pianofortes towards the close of the last century, a celebrity which they have ever since maintained. In all the cities of the civilized world, makers of this instrument arose, and a suitable style of music and school of players were not long wanting. It is needless to describe the different varieties now in use of an instrument so familiar to everyone. Our principal makers have rivalled each other in their exertions to increase the powers and improve the mechanism of their instruments ; and while those of each maker have some distinguishing feature of excellence, no one can be said to have gained a general pre-eminence over the others.

The pianoforte was first introduced into England about the year 1757, at which time various German mechanics came over to work at the instrument, the most successful amongst whom was John Zumpe'. The earliest pianofortes were of thesquare form. It was not until 1781 that John Broadwood and Robert Stodart, after many experiments, succeeded in producing the grand action, which, with slight modifications, has kept its place until the present time. Broadwood's first patent is dated July 17, 1773, and states that it is "for his new constructed pianoforte, which is far superior to any instrument of the kind hitherto made." It was principally noticeable for the position of the wrestpins and the shape of thehammers and dampers. In 1800 Muzio Clementi and Frederick Collard commenced business, and added further improvements to the mechanism of the instrument. In 1828, Robert Wornum brought out the piccolo action for upright cottage pianofortes ; and since this date various important improvements have been added by the Messrs. Broadwood, Collard, Kirkman, Brinsmead, &c. To the late Ralph Allison is due the credit of introducing divisional labour and machinery in the construction of the several parts of the pianoforte, a system which has tended greatly to cheapen and popularize the instrument.

The division of labour in the manufacture of the pianoforte is extremely great, as each instrument, in a large firm, passes through the hands of nearly forty of the workmen. The principal divisions of the manufacture are - the framing and sound-board, the stringing, the keys and machinery for striking the strings (technically called the action), and the ornamental case covering the whole. The latter, of course, belongs to cabinet manufacture and decorative art.

The head, or framing of a pianoforte, is a part of the utmost importance, as upon it depends the durability of the instrument, and its power of standing in tune. It is necessarily of great strength. The old instruments were strung with such light wire as not to require any great strengtth of frame to support the tension, but when thicker wire was employed to produce a more powerful tone, extra framing became necessary, and the use of metal bracings. One reason for the increase of strain was, that patents were granted in England for great improvements upon the soft Belgian steel wire, and the English wire could be drawn up to the pitch, which was continually being raised without the danger of breaking. From these causes the tension of the strings became enormous, amounting in a three-unison full-grand pianoforte to sixteen tons. It will then be readily conceived that the strength of the framing to resist this force must be considerable. I agree with Professor Pole, that the important part which iron, under the auspices of the engineering profession, began to take in the constructive arts at the commencement of the present century, had some influence upon the manufacture of the pianoforte. As early as 1808 Messrs. Broadwood applied metal tension bars to the treble ; in 1820 Mr. Stodart patented the first perfect system of metallic bracing for grand instruments ; and between this date and 1827, other makers applied various modifications of this system, which resulted in the general plan now in use.

"The compass of the pianoforte for a long time was only five octaves and a half. Francis Panormo, a pianist of some note, was the first to suggest the idea of extending its range, and John Broadwood and Sons were the first to try the experiment. Their first addition was half an octave of keys in the treble, to C altissimo. The scale was afterwards carried down to CCC in the bass, forming a compass of six octaves. It was then carried up to F in the treble, forming six octaves and a half ; and when another note was added to G, it was called six octaves and three quarters, although it was in reality only six and a half octaves ; while that and the bass notes to A formed the complete seven octaves. These additions were made at different and irregular times, as the mechanical resources of the manufacturer became enlarged, and pianoforte playing progressed."

One of the greatest improvements in the pianoforte was the substitution of heavier wires. In the old pianoforte each string was formed of a separate wire, one end of which was twisted into a loop, and passed over the stud in the string block ; the other end being wrapped around the wrestpin. When thicker wire was adopted, it became impossible to form the loop, and this gave rise to the modern method of stringing, according to which one wire of double length is made to form two strings. The two ends are wrapped round two adjoining wrestpins ; the middle of thewire being bent over a stud in the string-plate, at the opposite end of theinstrument. The pressure of the wire on the stud is sufficient to keep both strings distinct, as regards their tuning. This method of stringing was invented and patented by Messrs. Collard, in 1827, and is now almost universally adopted.

By the action is understood the machinery, through which the impulse given by the finger of the player is transmitted to the string of the instrument. The action is the moving part, and upon its capability to speak the will or mind of the performer depends its excellence. The earliest action was very rude. The hammer was lifted by an upright wire attached to the back-end of the key, and capped with a leather button, which came in contact with the under side of the hammer. The height of the button was so adjusted, that when the key was depressed down as far as it would go, the hammer was at a short distance from the string ; the effect of this adjustment being that, after the impulse given to the hammer had caused it to striike the blow, it fell back upon the button, and so left the string free to vibrate. This was called the "single action." "It was," says Professor Pole, "the simplest form of mechanism, and probably the earliest that attained for the pianoforte any share of public favour. Square instruments were made with this action as late as the commencement of the present century, and probably many of them are in existence still." The invention of the hopper was the next great improvement. "The evil of the single action," says the authority just quoted, "was that, owing to the adjustment already mentioned, the hammer would not reach the string, unless the key was thrust down with sufficient force to give it considerable impetus, so that it was impossible to play very piano ; while if, to remedy this evil, the adjustment of the button was altered to bring the hammer nearer to the string, there was a danger of its not leaving it after the blow, a defect technically called 'blocking.' The hopper remedied this evil. It was a jointed upright piece attached to the back-end of the key, and used to lift the hammer, in place of the stiff wire and button of the former mechanism. When the key was pressed down, the hopper, engaging in a notch on the under side of the hammer, lifted it to within a very short distance of the string ; so near, in fact, that almost the slightest pressure would cause it to strike ; but at this moment, while the key was still pressed down, the jointed part of the hopper coming in contact with a fixed button as it rose, escaped from, or 'hopped' out of the notch, and let the hammer fall clear away from the string. This mechanism as applied , with trifling variation, to the square pianoforte was called the 'double action,' and is extensively in use for this and the upright form at the present day."

The invention of the check remedied a defect which I shall next explain. The hammer, when liberated from the hopper, fell upon a rail covered with cloth, or some other soft bed prepared to receive it. Now, when a forcible blow was struck, there was always a danger of the hammer rebounding, or, in other words, the elasticity of the struck wire would send it down with such force that it rebounded from its bed, touched the string a second time, and so damped the vibration and injured the tone. The remedy for this was found in fixing to the back-end of the key a projection called a "check," which caught the edge of the hammer as it fell, and held it down so firmly that it could not again rise. The check was one of the most important additions ever made to the action ; and no pianoforte, of any pretensions, is considered complete without it. The next invention applied to the action of thepianoforte is called the repetition mechanism, and its object is thus described : "In the ordinary action, after the hammer has fallen, the key must rise to its position of rest before the hopper will engage again in the notch of the hammer, so as to be ready for another stroke ; and hence a note cannot be repeated without not only requiring the finger to be lifted though the entire height of the key's motion, but also demanding a length of time between the repetitions sufficient to allow of its full rise. The contrivances by which the inconvenience has been overcome are of various kinds, according to the fancy or ingenuity of the makers ; but they all act on the same principle, namely, by holding up the hammer at a certain height while the key returns ; by which means the hopper is allowed to engage itself under the hammer earlier, and to reproduce the note in less time, and with less labour to the finger than before."

Although the last twenty years does not record the introduction of any very important novely in the pianoforte, yet a considerable general advance has taken place in its manufacture. "The best class of instruments, in the hands of the first-rate makers, have improved both in quality of tone and in perfection of make ; while the manufacture of instruments of a more humble description has been more widely extended, and the possession of them brought within more general reach of the public by the reduction of price, which always follows the production on an increased scale.

"The manufacture of pianos has increased remarkably in England, and more particularly in London ; but it is even more astonishing to observe the extension of this branch of industry in smaller places, such as Stuttgart, the principal city of Wu"rtemberg. In 1806, Schiedmayer, from Nuremberg, was the sole pianoforte manufacturer in the Suabian capital ; there are now no less than thirty-eight thriving houses in this trade who export their instrumentss, grand, square, and cottage, to many different parts of the world (a large number coming annually to London). But to look again at home, we cannot but be impressed with wonder at the extraordinary production of the house of Messrs. John Broadwood and Sons, who, from 1780 to 1826, made no less than 48,348 pianos, and from the latter year to 1861, the immense number of 75,500, a yet more surprising aggregate. It is reckoned that London alon produces some 23,000 a year ; we may therefore assume, without fear of exaggeration, that England, France, Belgium, and Germany, with Austria and Switzerland, do not supply less annually than 60,00 pianos." Since Herr Pauer wrote this, ten years ago, the number of pianofortes manufactured annually in England has greatly increased, and the gross amount may now be stated at little short of 30,000.


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