Its harsh climate limits agricultural pursuits to growing grain and fruit. Its vast grassland was ideal for raising horses, sheep and other small stock. Silver, copper and salt have been mined.
After 363, when the empire ceded the region east of the Euphrates to Persia, Cappadocia gained in strategic importance and became more exposed. Zanoi, Isaurians and Huns ravaged Cappadocia in the 5th century, provoking a program of fortification continued by justinian I, who rebuilt Caesarea and established a new fortified center at Mokissos. Vainly hoping to repress widespread civil disturbance an revolts by imperial tenants, he appointed a proconsul with full civil and military powers in 535, however the old system was restored by 553. The Persians destroyed Sebasteia in 575 and Caesarea in 611, introducing a period of great turmoil.
Arab attacks began with the temporary capture of Caesaea in 646 and intensified after they gained control of the Cilicia gates and Tyana in 708. The long wars led to major changes: the country was covered with strong, usually remote fortresses; large areas, especially in the east, were depopulated; andSlavs were transported from the Blakans to strengthen the defenses.
In the regime of themes, Capapdocia was divided between Anatolikon and Armeniakon. When these were reduced in the early 9th century, the two new themes of Charsianon and Cappadocia occupied the ancient geographical area, which continued to bear the name Cappadocia for unofficial and ecclesiastical purposes. In Byzantium administrative parlance, however, Cappadocia came to denote a smaller area, the highly exposed southern region. It extended from the Taurus to the Halys and had its headquarters at Korone in the mountains above the main invasion route o the Arabs. Leo VI extended Cappadocia to the northwest by adding the region adjacent to the Salt lake.
In the mid-9th century, the Paulicians attacked from their base at Tephrike just east of the frontier. That threat was removed in 873. However, Arab raids continued until the capture of Melitene by the Byzantines in 934 and the displacement of the frontier eastward brought renewed security. Major problems remained, however: notably depopulation from the long wars and the concomitant growth of the estates of the military aristocracy, many of whom were Cappadocian. Syrian and Armenian settlers helped to repopulate the country. The increasing power of the magnates sparked a serie sof revolts left by Bardas Phokas and Bardas Skleros that spread from Cappadocia to afflict most of Anatolia from 963 to 989. After finally gaining control, Basil II moved against the Cappadocian aristocracy, confiscating the wealth of such families as the Maleinoi. He gained victories in the east and then annexed much of Armenia; in compensation, Armenian princes and their followers received lands and offices in Cappadocia. Large parts of the country became Armenian, and hostility between the newcomers and the native population grew. In 1057, the deteriorating military situation produced by increasing Turkish attacks provoked Bryennios, general of Cappadocia,to revolt. In the same year the Turks destroyed Melitene and in 1059 Sebasteia; defense of such cities had long been neglected. After the devestation of Vaesarea in 1067, Romanos IV strove to restore the military situation in Cappadocia and the east. In 1071, he passed through Cappapdocia en route to the fatal battle of Mantzikert, after which Cappadocia was permanently lost to empire.
The basalt is less affected by erosion when compared to the tufa and has served as a protective cover. This juxtaposition of different materials has produced capped columns, pyramids and conical formations with dark-colored caps known as peribacalari, fairy chimneys. A block of hard rock which resists erosion is left standing alone as the tufa around it is worn away, until it stands at the top of a large cone. A fairy chimney exists until the neck of the cone is eroded and the cap falls off.
Anchorites of the Early Church, who sought refuge from the distractions of the world in wild and remote places, chose Cappadocia which led monasticism to develop in the area. They devoted their lives to prayer, penance and fasting, often living in man-made or natural caves. Martyrdom was the ultimate aim of a devout Christian.
After Christianity was accepted as the official religion by Constantine the Great in 330 AD, the days of martyrdom went and a peaceful and secure life did not satisfy these people. The geography of Cappadocia was suitable for people who preferred ascetic lifestyles.
In the seventh and eighth centuries AD when the Arabs began to raid Anatolia, monastic communities had to hide themselves and, where it was geographically easy, dug their underground shelters. In time these shelters developed into large underground cities.
Two different techniques were employed for the frescoes, they were either painted directly on the rock or on a very thin coat of plaster. In churches where it was not plastered over, the painting became extensive. The predominant color of this style was red ocher.
The simplest church had a rectangular vaulted nave with an apse covered by a projecting arch. There are many variations of the churches, some with triple apse and a dome, cross-planned and so on. Because the churches were carved into the rock, they did not need to be supported by columns. Therefore columns and vaults are only structural symbols. Names of the churches are based on their archeological style or decoration, for instance the Buckle or Sandal Church. The apses of the churches face different directions as they are carved in accordance with the natural formations and availability of suitable rock pieces.
In most churches there are many grave pits which are thought to have probably belonged to donors or the church dignitaries as this was the tradition.
The height of Hasandag is 3,268 m / 10,720 ft. Itwas formed in the same period as Erciyas however, Hasandag looks younger.
On some ancient coins it was shown as a bursting volcano. As it was always snow-covered the Hittites called it "The White Mountain". According to the ancient geographer Strabo, one could see the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea from the top of Erciyas. Back to Central Anatolia
The ground consists of the same volcanic tufa. Cappadocians created vast cities which cannot be noticed from the ground level. They carved airshafts as deep as 300 ft into the rock and then made holes laterally at different levels in all directions. They hewed an elaborate system of staircases and tunnels to connect all layers to the surface. They dug dwellings, bathrooms, kitchens, dining halls, storage rooms, wine cellars, chapels, graves and suchlike. In times of danger they provided security by rolling big round hard stones across strategic tunnels. Entrances at the surface were also camouflaged.
Kaymakli Yeralti Kenti (Underground City of Kaymakli)
It is one of the largest underground cities in Cappadocia with eight stories. It covers an area of approximately 4 sq km / 1.5 sq mi. It probably is connected to nearby Derinkuyu. The population of Kaymakli is thought to have been about 3,000.
Derinkuyu Yeralti Kenti (Underground City of Derinkuyu)
The underground city of Derinkuyu which means "deep well", like Kaymakli, is one of the largest. It is 230-300 ft deep with 53 airshafts. The original ventilation system still functions remarkably well. It is not recommended that visitors having problems of claustrophobia or restricted movement go inside since there are many passageways where one has to squat.
The first two floors under the surface housed a missionary school with two long rock-cut tables, baptismal place, kitchens, storehouses, living quarters, wine cellars and stables. Third and fourth floors were for the tunnels, places to hide and armories. The last floors had water wells, hidden passageways, a church, graves and a confession place.
The canyon is approximately is reached by more than 300 steep steps. It has to be noted that the way back is not an easy climb. In the canyon there are about 60 churches, monasteries and cells of anchorites. There are a few major churches which are easier to reach.
Agacalti Kilisesi (The Church under the Tree)
It is a cruciform church with two small aisles and an apse. Due to a few collapses the entrance to the church is from the altar section. In the dome there is a fresco of Christ in a mandorla being carried up to heaven by four angels. It is in primitive style, the faces orange and white with eyes unfocused and empty.
Yilanli Kilise (The Church of the Serpent)
It is a cruciform church with a horseshoe-shaped apse. It has a burial chamber in the north side. There is little light inside the church.
West wall; Christ, the judge, flanked by angels, is seated in a mandorla. Below him are the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste in oriental robes and the Twenty-four Elders of the Apocalypse. Below the west wall again, on the left, Day of Reckoning by weighing the Souls, a monster with three heads, and the body of a serpent devouring some of the damned representing the torments of hell. The name of the church derives from this painting. Next to it, on the right, naked women are being assaulted by snakes. One of them is in the coils of eight snakes probably because of her adultery. Another one's breasts are being gnawed by snakes because she left her children. Others guilty of disobedience and calumny are attacked on the ear and mouth.
To the right of the door of the burial chamber is Entry into Jerusalem. To the left is St. Onesimus.
Apse; Last Supper, Crucifixion.
East wall; At the top is a cross in a halo, on the inclined wall to the left is the Crucifixion and Visitation. Top of the north face; St. John the Baptist, right hand raised and left hand holding an amulet. Top of the wall, east of the altar; Christ sitting on a rainbow, Christ dressed in red and holding a book surrounded by archangels Michael, Raphael, Gabriel and Uriel.
South wall; Michael and Gabriel on both sides. Below the window is the Dormition, near the cross is the fresco of Constantine and Helena.
Sumbullu Kilise (The Church of the Hyacinth)
The name comes from the abundant hyacinths around the church. Sumbullu Kilise has a domed single nave and was part of a two-storied monastery, the upper floor being living quarters. The arched doorways which are divided by pillars and linked with an architrave in the facade of the church carry the traces of Persian influence.
Tuz Golu, also called Tatta in ancient times, is a closed lake with no way out, surrounded by plateaus on 4 sides. The sources feeding the lake are insufficient; Melendiz River (Aksaray) and Pecenekozu River (Sereflikochisar). In summer, because of the evaporation the lake dries out and a 30 cm / 12 in layer of salt forms. Under this layer is mud. In winter, water is collected again but at its deepest level is not more than 2 m / 6.5 ft. Although it is the second largest lake, there is not much water because of its shallowness.
It is among the lakes of the world with its very high salinity of 33%. Due to this high rate of salt it is impossible to grow crops around the lake.
Tuz Golu is one of the richest salt beds in the world. Salt can only be taken from the lake from July through August. To ensure clean salt it is only collected from areas where the surface layer is more than 5-6 cm / inches thick. The salt is dug, the dirty layer is removed and the clean salt is gathered into mounds and loaded manually onto the wagons of mini trains.
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