Naturally, there were many fundamental changes during this period, and the fully developed Byzantine world was very different from the ancient world that preceded it. Two of these important changes were the foundation of Constantinople and the conversion of the empire to Christianity, both of which are closely connected with Constantine I the Great (306-337), generally recognized as the first Byzantine emperor. Constantine was not primarily an innovator, and he built firmly on the foundations of his predecessors. He did, however, build a great eastern capital at Constantinople (dedicated 11 May 330); he also became a Christian and encouraged his subjects to do similarly. Constantine's Christianity isperhaps best understood in terms of earlier Roman thought: the Christian God was understood to be directly involved in human affairs and maintaining a correct relationship with him largely determined earthly success. These principles became a mainstay of Byzantine political thought from Constantine's time on. As a result, the Byzantine state became involved in the disputes concerning the definition of Christian doctrine, especially the controversies over the nature of the church and the Trinity (and later the person of Christ). Thus, at the time of Constantine, the emperor was called upon to take a position on the Donatist and Arian controversies and Constantine called and presided over the First Council of Nicaea in 325.
The age of Constantine also witnessed the culmination of a process of political reorganization that had begun in the third century and had been furthered by the tetrarchs. A tightly organized structure replaced the loose administration of the Roman Empire that was, at least theoretically, personally coordinated by the all-powerful emperor. In contrast with the Roman system, civil and military functions were carefully distinguished and they created a separate administrative structure for each branch of the government. Cities remained the fundamental subdivision of the empire. Some large cities retained their civic pride and a good deal of individualism, but on the whole they had lost political independence and had become tax-collecting bodies for the central administration. They divided the empire into four provinces, all of which they grouped into one of four great prefectures. Praetorian prefectures governed the prefectures, these were great officials of state who were responsible to the emperor for the day-to-day functioning of the state. Both the provincial governors and the praetorian prefects had lost their military function and they were purely civilian officials. On the military side they made a distinction among three kinds of troops: the frontier militia (limitanei), the mobile field armies (comitatenses), and the palace guard. The dux, or local military commander, generally reported to the comes, who was in turn responsible to the magister militum. The magistri militum and the praetorian prefects, along with a number of other officials chosen by the emperor, formed the imperial court which made the basic decisions of state.
They overall secluded the emperor from ordinary individuals and his person elevated far beyond that of mere mortals. His sacred character as the viceregent of God was emphasized by distinctive clothing and confirmed with an elaborate ritual borrowed extensively by the emerging liturgy of the church.
His three sons succeeded Constantine with the eldest, Constantius II (337-361), reigning at Constantinople and ultimately seizing sole power in his own name. Constantius was an ardent Arian, having been raised in the Christian faith, and for a time it appeared that the decisions of the First Council of Nicaea might be reversed. He also furthered and completed many projects begun by his father, including construction of buildings in Constantinople and the city's elevation to a position equal to that of old Rome. A temporary reaction to the policies of the house of Constantine took place during the brief reign of Julian (361-363), frequently known as the Apostate. Julian was a nephew of Constantius II and most of his immediate family had been murdered at the time of the latter's accession. His brief reign was characterized by his efforts to establish organized paganism as a rival to Christianity and by his attempt to revive the old civic structure of the empire. Julian died suddenly while on campaign against Persia and his policies came quickly to an end.
Under Valentian I (364-375) and Valens (364-378) two emperors ruled the empire. Valens, who ruled from Constantinople, was an Arian, and the church continued to be plagued by dissension. Even more serious was the growing barbarian menace, as Hunnic peoples from east and central Asia appeared among the Germanic tribes and sent many of them plunging headlong across the Danube frontier. Many of these Germans were enrolled as Roman allies and some were given land and settled within the empire. Such groups were an unstable and potentially disruptive element, and in 378, some Gothic allies revolted and ravished Thrace. Valens met the Goths on the battlefield at Adrianople, where the Goths decisively defeated him and he lost his life.
The situation after Adrianople was salvaged by Theodosius I (379-395), the last of the early Byzantine warrior-emperors and the last to rule an undivided empire. Theodosius was an autocrat and a strong personality; he made concessions to the Goths but generally kept the barbarians at bay through a vigilant military policy. Also an ardent orthodox Christian, he summoned the First Council of Constantinople (381) which again condemned Arianism and elevated the church of Constantinople to a position second only to that of Old Rome. Arianism remained a potent force, especially since it had been spread widely among the Germans, but it was no longer supported by imperial policy and slowly disappeared within the empire.
Theodosius left the empire to his two sons, Honorius, who ruled the West, and Arcadius, who held the throne in Constantinople. Theoretically, the empire remained united, but from this point on no emperor could hold effective power over both parts. The barbarians took advantage of the death of Theodosius to rise in revolt, this time under the leadership of Alaric, king of the Visigoths. Alaric ravaged Thrace, descended into Greece, and finally made his way to the West, where he sacked Rome in 410, shocking the world by this demonstration of imperial weakness. Continued barbarian pressure characterized the rest of the fifth century, much of it directed against the Danube frontier. The Huns continued their westward movement, and one Germanic group after another crossed into Roman territory. The government at Constantinople was able to deal with this threat by means of a combination of military preparedness and a diplomacy supported by liberal payments to cooperative barbarian leaders. In addition, a powerful systemof fortifications defended Constantinople, completed under Emperor Theodosius II (408-450).
The rulers of the West had neither the work force nor the financial reserves to meet the barbarian challenge and Germanic groups began to settle in growing numbers throughout the western provinces. The emperors in Constantinople offered what assistance they could, but by the end of the fifth century all of the West had fallen to the barbarians, many of whom continued to recognize, if only formally, the emperor in the West as their ultimate sovereign.
In the East, theological controversy continued. At the Council of Ephesus (431) they condemned Nestorius, patriarch of Constantinople, for allegedly stressing Christ's humanity at the expense of his divinity (Nestorianism). In reaction to this, Monophysitism emphasized a single divine nature in the person of Christ, a teaching that gained considerable support, especially in Egypt and Syria. After much turmoil, however, they condemned Monophysitism at the Council of Chalcedon (451) and a doctrine of two natures (divine and human) was declared orthodox. The decision of the Council of Chalcedon seriously split the church in the East and many Christians were never reconciled to its teaching. The council also asserted the virtual equality of the bishops of Constantinople and Rome and from this point on the Byzantine church generally recognized the spiritual preeminence of the pope, but denied him any administrative jurisdiction over the East.
The emperors of the second half of the fifth century sought to defend the empire against the barbarian threat and to find some solution to the schism caused by the decisions at Chalcedon. Zeno (474-491), for example, issued a decree, the Henotikon (Edict of Union, 482), which called upon both sides to abandon the struggle. Naturally, the issue was more important to the contending parties and they ignored the injunction. Anastasius (491-518) even adopted Monophysite ideas trying to finish the controversy, but this also was unsuccessful. He was, however, able to bring a considerable stability and prosperity to the state, and as a result he was able to carry out important economic and administrative reforms.
The reign of Justinian (527-656) represents the culmination of the early Byzantine period. The empire was prosperous, strong, and full of intellectual vitality. With the assimilation of much classical thought by Christian theology, a new synthesis was beginning to emerge. Justinian was openly autocratic in temperament and policy; he believed firmly in his own abilities and his special relationship to God, and with his wife, Theodora, he ruled the empire with an iron hand.
This policy sparked resistance among both the aristocracy and the common people, resulting in the Nika Revolt of 532, which began as a riot of the circus factions ("clubs" or claques organized to applaud at the chariot races), but quickly expanded into a full-scale rebellion, destroying one-third of Constantinople and nearly costing Justinian his throne. Justinian survived this threat and used the destruction as a reason to rebuild Constantinople as a monument to himself. Among the buildings constructed at this time was Hagia Sophia ("Holy Wisdom"), the "Great Church" of Constantinople and probably the most spectacular example of Byzantine art and architecture.
Justinian also set himself the task of revising and codifying the Byzantine law and legal education. The result was the Corpus juris civilis, which has served as the model of legal principle for much of European law. Justinian turned his attention also to the religious controversies, but his efforts there were no more successful than those of his predecessors.
In foreign affairs Justinian reconquered much of the West from the barbarians. Under the command of generals such as Belisarios and Narses, Byzantine troops defeated the Vandals in North Africa and the Ostrogoths in Italy. Byzantium was again mistress of the whole Mediterranean basin.
Justinian's accomplishments were indeed spectacular, but they were also expensive, and his methods of taxation were harsh in the extreme. Thus, we can view his reign in two ways: it was a brilliant climax to the early Byzantine age, but it was also a prelude, and perhaps a contributor to the age of disaster and disintegration that was to follow.
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Last modified: Mon Dec 14, 1998