The restoration of the icons was largely the work of Empress Theodora, widow of Theophilos and regent for her son Michael III (842-867). John Grammaticus was deposed as patriarch and replaced by the layman Methodios. A synod in 843 solemnly proclaimed the restoration of the icons. Naturally, the Zealots were not pleased and controversy continued. Nevertheless, the monks had been the overall victors in the struggle over iconoclasm and they came generally to dominate the ecclesiastical structure after 843.
Young Emperor Michael III was surrounded by individuals of brilliance and greatness of vision, and together they laid the foundations for the age that followed. Among these individuals were Michael's uncle Caesar Bardas, the scholar Leo the Mathematician, and Photios perhaps the leading figure of the age, an intellectual who was later patriarch of Constantinople. Photios and Caesar Bardas were largely responsible for one of Byzantium's greatest achievements, the Christianization of the Slavs and their exposure to the richness of Byzantine civilization. Photios organized a mission to the Russians (860) that was the prototype for the great mission of Constantine (Cyril) and Methodios to Moravia. To further this mission, Constantine developed the so-called glagolithic alphabet with which to write Slavonic translations of the Bible, the liturgy, and other Christian writings. This development marked the beginning of Slavonic civilization.
The mission to Moravia naturally had political as well as religious ramifications. Byzantium hoped to neutralized Frankish and Bulgarian activity in this area. Ultimately, Latin Christianity prevailed in Moravia and Byzantine missionary activity was transferred to Bulgaria, where the Bulgarian prince Boris was baptized in 864, Emperor Michael being his godfather. With this policy of cultural expansion. Byzantium was able to influence an area far larger than its army could ever control and the various south and east Slavic peoples were brought slowly into the Byzantine cultural sphere.
The revived power of the Byzantine church and its missionary ambitions brought it into direct conflict with the papacy, which was experiencing a period of growth. The result was a schism between the two churches in which the issue of the Filioque played an important role but cultural differences and the question of papal supremacy and the independence of the Byzantine church remained crucial.
Ultimately Michael III fell victim to the political ambitions of Basil I (867-886), the founder of the Macedonian dynasty that was to dominate the empire over the next century and a half. Despite his questionable rise to power, Basil was a capable and farsighted ruler, continuing and carrying to completion many of the policies of Michael III and his advisers. For instance, he supported the missionary activity in Bulgaria and pursued an active military policy in Italy and the East. Despite his lowly origins, Basil was an ardent supporter of the best in Byzantine civilization and he encouraged the cultural developments begun under his predecessor. He also undertook a full compilation and revision of Byzantine law, which was completed by his son and successor, Leo VI (886-913).
Leo was intelligent, well educated and pious; his sermons and theological work earned him the title of Leo the Wise. In foreign affairs Leo had to face a new threat from the Bulgarian czar Symeon (893-927). Symeon had been educated at Constantinople, and he was the empire's first adversary who thoroughly understood its policies and methods. When Symeon threatened the Byzantine northern frontier, Leo called upon the Magyars to attack Bulgaria. Not to be outdone, Symeon made an alliance with the Pechenegs, who attacked the Magyars, driving them into their present home in the Danube plain and relieving the pressure on Bulgaria. Under Leo the Byzantine advance in the East stalled and Sicily fell to the Arabs in 902. In 904, an Arab force under the renegade Leo of Tripoli sacked Thessaloniki, the second city of the empire.
In addition, Leo had serious problems stemming from his failure to produce an heir despite three marriages. Ultimately, his mistress produced a son, the future emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitos (913-959), and Leo forced his recognition over the vociferous objections of the Zealots. Leo's death in 913, while Constantine was still a minor, led to a succession of regencies formed against the background of Symeon's depredations in the Balkans and his open ambition for the imperial throne. Ultimately, power was seized by the talented and ambitious Romanos I Lekapenos (920-944), who managed to stalemate Symeon's aspirations until the latter's death in 927.
Peace on the Bulgarian frontier gave Romanos the opportunity to turn his attention to the East, where the power of the caliphate was rapidly waning and where a major Byzantine offensive was now begun. Under generals such as John Kurkuas, the Byzantine army defeated the Arabs on several fronts and prepared the way for the victorious advance over the next half century. In internal matters Romanos turned his attention to the growing power of the landholding aristocracy, which threatened to overturn the social and economic system that had brought the empire military and economic stability. Ironically, the military successes of the recent past had enriched the local military commanders and allowed them to increase their land holdings considerably, at the expense of the small peasant farmers, who were the backbone of both the Byzantine army and its fiscal structure. Romanos saw this danger and initiated a policy designed to protect the small farmer and make it difficult for the powerful to acquire additional lands. This was the beginning of a long struggle that pitted the emperor against the hereditary aristocracy. It lasted well into the next century, bringing with it many fundamental changes in the Byzantine state.
Romanos had planned to pass the imperial power on to his sons, but after a brief period of confusion the legitimate emperor, Constantine VII, came to the throne in his own name in 945. Constantine Porphyrogenitos is best known as an author, painter and patron of a notable intellectual circle. However, he was also an emperor of ability and foresight who generally continued the policies established by his predecessor.
Constantine's son, Romanos II (959-963), died at an early age, leaving his two sons, Basil and Constantine, as the legitimate emperors. The political void was filled by two talented generals, Nikephoros II Phokas (963-969) and John Tzimiskes (969-976). Nikephoros was a member of the hereditary aristocracy of Cappadocia who under Romanos II had distinguished himself as a general in the East and in Crete. As emperor the "Pale Death of the Saracens" broke through the Taurus frontier and took the war to the Arabs' homeland. Naturally, he did not pursue the same social and economic policies as his predecessors and the great landowners were given a respite from imperial pressure. Nikephoros, an ascetic by temperament, ardently supported the development of Mt. Athos as a spiritual center and encouraged movements for monastic reform.
Like his predecessor, John Tzimiskes was a great general; he led the Byzantine army to its deepest penetration of the East since the days of Heraklios. He marched through Syria and Palestine, carrying all before him, and stood within striking distance of Jerusalem.
Upon the death of Tzimiskes the legitimate emperor, Basil II (976-1025), asserted his claim to the throne. Dynastic sentiment still existed, but there were rival claimants to the throne and Basil had to fight a long series of civil wars to maintain his birthright. In addition, he had to contend with the might of Bulgaria under the leadership of Czar Samuil. The struggle was long and protracted, but Basil was finally victorious and Bulgaria was annexed to the empire. Throughout the Balkan peninsula the force of Byzantine arms was triumphant.
Basil II was also active in the East, and just before his death he contemplated a campaign against the Arabs in Sicily. A man of single-minded purpose, Basil had little time for culture or the refinements of life. He was a staunch opponent of the hereditary aristocracy, especially after the years of civil war against the aristocrats, and he followed and strengthened the regulations of his predecessors against the growth of large landholding.
At the death of Basil II in 1025, the Byzantine Empire stood at a pinnacle of power and influence. Basil had recently presided over the baptism of Prince Vladimir of Kiev (989) and the Christianization of Russia. There were weaknesses, it is true, and Byzantium's enemies were gathering strength for a new assault, but for the moment the empire stood as the dominant power in the Mediterranean world.
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Last modified: Thurs Dec 10, 1998