INTRODUCTION

The dates listed for the festivals should not be taken too seriously, since calendars in the Greek and Roman worlds were quite chaotic before the calendar reform of Julius Caesar. Months were lunar and were often out of step with the solar year. In Greece each city had its own months (over 300 are known), and often picked different times to begin the year. The dates shown here are based on the Julian calendar and the "standard" months of Athens. Nevertheless, the dates may be taken a guide to the time of year of a festival.

However, these dates will serve admirably for the purpose of the saga. They will serve as keystones for various rituals and events.

These dates represent the ancient calendar, of paganism. In no way am I suggesting that any of these rituals would be celebrated by the peasantry. However, as discussed elsewhere, the remnants of paganism still survive in Orthodoxy at the time of the saga.

• Spring Equinox
• Mid Spring
• Summer Solstice
• Mid Summer
• Fall Equinox
• Mid-Autumn
• Winter Solstice
• Mid-Winter

Gk. He Isemeria Earine.

March was the first month of the Roman year, and the Spring Equinox was on the 25th day. [SFR 84-5]

Anthesteria (Grk., c. Feb. 25-27) Ancient: 11-13 Anthesterion (full moon).
This is the "Festival of Flowers," when the first shoots of blossom appear, and is one of the oldest Greek festivals, dating back to the second millennium BCE; it was also called the Older Dionysia. At this time the vines are pruned again and the second fermentation of the wine is complete; it is now ready for drinking, and so this festival complements the Oskhophoria (c. Oct. 22), which celebrates the vintage.

1st day: Pithoigia (Jar-opening)
The first day celebrates the opening of the pithoi (jars) in which the wine has fermented. A pompe (procession) symbolizes the coming of Dionysos from the sea in a ship-chariot to His sanctuary; the God may be represented by an image or a masked man. The procession includes musicians and bearers of the ritual instruments, and other men, riding in the carts and perhaps masked as Satyrs, merrily hurl insults at bystanders.

The pithoi are also brought, and after they are broken open and the wine is mixed by the priestesses (i.e. diluted with water, as Dionysos taught the Greeks to drink it), a first-fruits offering is made to Him with a prayer that the wine be beneficial. Then the wine is tasted and there are songs and dances, in which He is celebrated as the Fair-Flowering, the Reveller, the Stormer, etc.

2nd day: Khoes (Pitcher Feast)

On this day all the temples of the gods are closed except the Limnaion, the temple of "Dionysos in the Marshes" (limnais, though there may be no marshes present), which is only open during this festival. Thus the underworld spirits are free to roam and join the feasts of the living. For protection people paint pitch on their doors and chew buckthorn in the morning; business is suspended and no oaths are sworn.

Also on this day it is customary that everyone at least three years old drinks wine. (Children are expected to participate because of their connection to fertility.) Everyone, including the children, has their own khoes (pitchers, 2-liter for adults) and drinking cups for wine, often purchased at the festival. The khous has a round body, short neck and trefoil mouth.

This is a very child-oriented festival, and a child's first Khoes is one of the major milestones of life: Birth, Khoes, Puberty and Marriage. He or she is crowned with flowers and might be given a khous, as well as other gifts, such as toys and pets; teachers often invite their pupils to a reception.

This is a day for drinking parties, both public and private. Distinguished people are invited by the high priest of Dionysos to a public drinking contest. A trumpet signals the start of the contest, during which no one may speak (for at this time people are cut off from one another as from all other gods but Dionysos). The victory goes to the first to empty his khous, who is awarded a full wineskin. Private contests are similar, but the prize is a cake.

Participants bring their own food, cups and khoes, already filled with mixed wine (from the Pithoigia); the host provides the garlands, perfume and dessert. After the contests, they put their garlands around their khoes and proceed to the Limnaion, where they give their garlands to the priestess. There they all thank Dionysos by pouring a libation for Dionysos of the last of the wine from their khoes.

3rd day: Khutroi (Pot Feasts)
Since the Greeks and Romans reckoned the day from sundown, the last day of the festival begins on the night of the Day of Pitchers. This is the night of the Hieros Gamos (Sacred Marriage) of Dionysos with the Basilenna (Queen), the wife of the Archon Basileus (Priest King); he must surrender his wife to Dionysos as Theseus, his distant predecessor, surrendered Ariadne to Him.

In the sacred precinct the Basilenna administers an oath of purity to the fourteen women, the Gerarai (Venerable Ones) of the Limnaion, who are appointed by her:

"I sanctify myself and am both pure and holy,
from all things which are not purifying
and especially from all intercourse with men,
and I shall act as Gerara ... in the ancestral fashion
and at all appropriate times."

They then conduct secret rites, which include making offerings at the fourteen altars and dancing before masks of Dionysos as at the Lenaia (c. Jan. 28).

Another pompe (procession) brings the Holy Bride, who is identified with Ariadne, to her bridal chamber in the Boukoleon (perhaps the ancient house of the Archon Basileus). She is proceeded by a guide bearing two torches, who embodies Hermes Psuchopompos (Spirit Guide); he wears the ependutes, a decorative tunic. A Satyr (perhaps masked) carries the tall dowry basket on his head or holds a sunshade over the Basilenna; one of the Gerarai bears a torch.

The actual rites of the Hieros Gamos are secret, but this much can be said. The Holy Bride waits on her bridal bed, while a Satyr acts as Thuroros (Doorkeeper) at the bridal chamber. Then, in secret but for an accompanying Satyr bearing His khous, Dionysos comes drunk to His bride for the consummation of their marriage, during which the revellers with their torches celebrate outside the bridal chamber. (It has been hypothesized that the Basillena may sleep with a herm of Dionysos or with a masked person, perhaps the Archon Basileus or the high priest of Dionysos.)

After daybreak the Aiora (Swing) commemorates Erigone (Early-born), who hanged herself in grief when her father, who brought viticulture to Athens, was killed by drunken men. Girls swing on swings and boys jump on sacks filled with wine. By these actions and by hanging swaying masks and puppets in trees, the children transform the memory of a sad death into a symbol of joyous new life, purify the vintage of this tragedy (swinging is a traditional means of purification by Air) and banish the underworld spirits (see below).

Also on this day the Hudrophoria (Water-bearing) is celebrated: a procession of girls carrying hudriai (water jugs) on their heads go to a place where the water can be poured into a cubit-wide chasm in the earth; thus they commemorate their ancestors who died in the flood of Purrha and Deukalion, and celebrate the disappearance of the flood waters into the earth.

Finally, a meal is prepared for the dead (and for Hermes Psuchopompos, their guide) by cooking various grains with honey in khutrai (earthen pots, after which this day is named). According to tradition, it was this meal, which is the most primitive cereal dish, that was eaten after the flood. Everyone shares this food except the priests (for the temples are closed).

At the close of the festival the underworld spirits are banished by saying:

Thuraze Keres, ouk eni Anthesteria! [LSJ s.v. Ker, I]

and

"Begone, Keres (Death Spirits), the Anthesteria are finished!"

The ritual celebration of the flood, the swinging, and the banishing of the dead mark a resurrection, like that of Dionysos Himself. [BGR 237-41; NFR 33; PFA 107-19; SFA 92-9]

Festival for Mars (Rom., Mar. 1) Ancient: Kal. Mar. (new moon).
In pre-Julian Roman calendar, March was the first month, the time when nature returns to life after the winter; thus this day was the old New Year's Day. The month is named for Mars, who is much more then a war god; He is the protector of family and field. Cato prescribes (De Agri Cultura, cxli) the following prayer to Him (abridged):

"Father Mars, I pray and I beseech Thee to be merciful and
gracious unto me, and to my house, and to my family;
therefore has the offering been brought around my field,
my house, my farm; that Thou might turn away, ward off,
remove all sickness, seen and unseen, barrenness, destruction,
ruin and untimely influences. Grant good health and strength
to me, my house and to my family. For this goal, to purify
my farm, my land, my ground, for making expiation,
please accept these offerings, Father Mars."

He is offered strues (finger-cakes) and ferta (oblation-cakes). In addition, prayers and libations are offered to Jupiter and Janus.

Mars is further honored on this, His birthday, by the Salii (Dancers or Leapers), two groups of twelve priests, who dance in armor and carry ancilia (ancient, bronze-age figure-eight shields). In ancient times one of these shields was the original ancile that had fallen from the sky as a gift from Jupiter. The Sallii dance through the city to flute music, and sing a song so ancient that even the Romans didn't understand its words. According to Frazer, the clashing arms routs the evil spirits and the stamping feet and leaping promotes the earth's fertility. The priests feast throughout the month. [CDA 114, 120-2; SFR 84-6]

Festival for Anna Perenna (Rom., Mar. 15) Ancient: Ides Mar. (full moon).
The goddess Anna Perenna (Unfailing Years), who appears as an old woman, presides over the turning of the years, and so Her festival falls on the first full moon of the ancient year. There are offerings for Her, and prayers that the year will be prosperous and healthy. Men and women go to the park or countryside, stay in tents, and celebrate, singing, dancing and drinking as many cups of wine as the number of years they hope to live. (Frazer considers this to be a relic of fertility rites.) Whenever people meet they address each other as "Blessed" (Fortunatus or Fortunata).[OF p. 406; SFR 90]

Liberalia (Rom., Mar. 17) Ancient: XVI Kal. Apr.
This is a festival for Liber Pater (Father Liber), a god of fertility and especially of the vine, often identified with Dionysos, and for Libera Mater (Mother Libera) who brings fertility to women (as Liber does to men). They are closely associated with Ceres, and the three correspond to Iakkhos, Persephone and Demeter, respectively.

On this day old women act as priestesses for these Gods; they sit by the side of the street and sell liba (offering cakes) made of oil and honey, which they will offer to the Gods on their small altars. There is a procession bearing a phallus to the market place (cf. the City Dionysia, c. Mar. 24), where a virtuous matron lays a wreath upon it. There may also be games on this day, and the "coming of age" for boys is celebrated on this day. [SFR 91-2]

City Dionysia (Grk., c. Mar. 24-28) Ancient: 9-13 Elaphebolion (first quarter to full moon).
A principal characteristic of the City Dionysia, as opposed perhaps to the Rural Dionysia (c. Jan. 7), is the presence of dramatic contests. On the first day, costumed choruses of men and boys sing dithyrambs (odes to Dionysos), on the second day there are comedies (such as Aristophanes'), and on the third to fifth days there are trilogies of tragedies (such as Aeschylus's). Crowns and other prizes are awarded. The priest of Dionysos presides over the contests, and the image the God attends them; the officials in charge of administrative details are called choregoi. Other honors may also be announced and awarded.

The sacred image of the God is a wooden stulos, or column, on which is affixed a terracotta mask of the bearded Dionysos. A procession called "Bringing in from the Sacrificial Hearth," which may include mounted Epheboi (youths), brings the image to His sanctuary and mimics the arrival of the God in the city. (The image is removed from the sanctuary and taken outside the city for this purpose.)

On the following day is the main procession, the central feature of which is the Sacred Phallus, made of wood and carried on a tray (indeed, there may be several such phalli in the procession). A maiden of good birth is chosen as Kanephoros (Basket Carrier), and she bears the Kaneon, a golden basket filled with first-fruit offerings. Next come the Askophoroi (Bottle Carriers), citizens of the city bearing on their shoulders askoi (leather bottles) of wine to be offered as first fruits to the God; they may wear whatever they like. Others carry obeliai (spit-like things), phallus-shaped loaves of bread, on their shoulders. Likewise purple-robed Skaphephoroi (Tray Carriers) bear skaphia (trays) of offerings. In ancient times bulls were brought for sacrifice. The day ends with a Komos (Revel), a feast on beef and wine. At night, accompanied by flute and harp music, the people sing and dance through the streets. [PFA 125-34; SFA 101-4]

Quinquatrus (Rom., Mar. 19-24) Ancient: XIV-X Kal. Apr.
This is a spring equinox festival in which Mars and Minerva are honored. In ancient times it inaugurated the military campaigning season; nowadays, since Mars was originally a vegetation god and Minerva is a patron of the crafts and arts, we may think of it as a celebration of new beginnings.

Though named for Mars, March is under the protection of Minerva, and the first day of the Quinquatrus is especially sacred to Her because it is Her birthday; therefore no bloodshed is permitted on that day, though She likes to see martial contests on the following days. Ovid exhorts practitioners of every art to pray to Minerva for knowledge and skill; here is an abridged version:

Pray now to Pallas, boys and tender girls;
whoever wins Her favor will be skilled,
for She's the Goddess of a Thousand Works.
[LEM 207; OF III.809-34; SFR 92-4]

Veneralia (Rom., Apr. 1) Ancient: Kal. Apr. (new moon).
April is under the protection of Venus, and some ancient authors derived the month's name from Aphrodite (perhaps via a conjectured Etruscan form, Aprodita); others derive it from aperire (to open), since it is the time when, according to Cincius and Varro, "fruits and flowers and animals and seas and lands open."

The Veneralia, on the first day of Venus' month, honors Venus Verticordia (Changer of Hearts) and Her companion Fortuna Virilis (Bold Fortune). In ancient times all the women, married and unmarried, went to the men's baths, as today they might go to swimming pools. Upon arriving they offer incense to Fortuna Virilis and pray that the men will not see any blemishes the women might have. They make a libation and drink the potion Venus drank on Her wedding night: pounded poppy with milk and honey. An ancient commentary (probably by Verrius) says they go to the baths to view the men's virile members. The women, crowned with myrtle wreaths, bathe and pray that Venus will bring them concord and a modest life. Ovid says, "beauty and fortune and good fame are in Her keeping."

In addition, the women remove the jewelry and other ornaments from the statues of Venus and Fortuna so that they can be washed, after which they are redecorated and adorned with roses (Venus's flower). [OF IV.133-64; SFR 96-7]

Lesser Festivals

Lesser Mysteries (Grk., late Feb.) Ancient: early Anthesterion.
Initiation in the Lesser Mysteries is a prerequisite to initiation in the Greater (Eleusinian) Mysteries (c. Sept. 29); they accomplish the preliminary purification of the Mustos (Initiate). These secret rites belong to Rhea, the Mother of the Gods, and the oldest of the Rhea-Demeter-Kore triad, but no more can be said about them.[PFA 122-3; SFA 26-7]

Matronalia (Rom., Mar. 1) Ancient: Kal. Mar. (new moon).
The Kalends of March, the old New Year's Day, are sacred to Juno Lucina (from lux = light) as the goddess of childbirth, who brings babies from the womb into the light. Husbands pray for the health of their wives and give them presents; the wives, in turn, entertain the servants. Everyone dresses up, and there is general celebration, feasting and play.[SFR 87]

Diasia (Grk., c. Mar. 10) Ancient: 23 Anthesterion.
The Diasia (from Deus = Zeus) is the principal festival for Zeus Meilikhios (The Kindly), who is Zeus in chthonic aspect, manifesting as a giant snake. On this day everyone makes bloodless offerings (thumata epikhoria) to Him, typically cakes in the shape of animals such as sheep or pigs, but also grain and fruit because He is responsible for the fertility of the soil and is often shown with a cornucopia. Since this is a festival of propitiation, the entire offering is burnt for the God. After that there is general feasting and gifts may be given to children (who are especially dear to chthonic deities). [PFA 120-2; SFA 12-5]

Elaphebolia (Grk., c. Mar. 21) Ancient: 6 Elaphebolion (1 day prior to 1st quarter).
This festival (and month) is named for Artemis Elaphebolos (Deer-shooting), that is, the Goddess as huntress; it is on the sixth day, which is always Hers. Now, as in ancient times, She is offered elaphoi (stags), which are stag-shaped cakes made from dough, honey and sesame-seeds. [PFA 125]

Gk. To Mesoun Earos.

Mounukhia (Grk., c. Apr. 30) Ancient: 16 Mounukhion (full moon time).
This festival honors Artemis as Moon Goddess and Lady of the Beasts. There is a procession in which the people carry Amphiphontes (Shining-all-round), round cakes in which dadia (little torches) are stuck, much like the cakes offered to Hekate; later these are offered to the Artemis with a prayer such as:

"Artemis, Dear Mistress, to Thee I carry, Lady, this Amphiphon, and what shall serve as drink offering."

Some say the reason the cake is called Amphiphon, which can also mean "Shining by Double Light," is that it is offered when the sun and moon are both visible.

In ancient times a she-goat was sacrificed to the Lady; now we may use cakes of that shape, or offer palm leaves, for the palm is sacred to Her.

This is also an appropriate time for the Arkteia (Playing the She-Bear) in thanks for game animals (the most important, for Neolithic tribes, being the bear). The Arktoi (She-Bears) are young girls (about ten years old) who dance naked or in short, saffron khitones (tunics); they wear leaf-crowns in their hair and carry torches or twigs. [LSJ s.v. amphiphon; PFA 137-9; SFA 81-8]

Festivals for Maia and Bona Dea (Rom., May 1) Ancient: Kal. May (new moon).
May is under the protection of Apollo; its name is most likely from Maia, a Roman fertility Goddess (not to be confused with the Greek Maia, mother of Apollo and Artemis). In ancient times She was offered a pregnant sow on this day, which was also an appropriate sacrifice for Terra (Earth), and shows the close connection of the two Goddesses.

Bona Dea (Good Goddess) or Fauna, who may be identical to Maia, is an Earth Goddess responsible for the fertility of women; men are excluded from Her worship, and myrtle is not allowed in the temple because Faunus, Her father, beat Her with a myrtle-rod. The Goddess's image is decorated with vine-leaves. The women bring wine, which they call lac (milk), in mellaria (honey pots) to Her temple, where all manner of herbs are kept, as well as snakes. This shows a connection with the healing arts, and Bona Dea is identified with Greek Agathe Dea (Good Goddess), who is related to Hugieia (Health). In ancient times a sow was sacrificed to Her, now a sow-shaped cake. A connection to Demeter (who was also offered sows) is shown by the name Damia for Bona Dea (the priestess was called Damiatrix and the sow Damium).[OF p. 423; SFR 116-7]

Lemuria (Rom., May 9, 11, 13) Ancient: VII, V, III Id. Mar.
These rites banish the Lemures, potentially hostile ancestral spirits, especially the restless ghosts of those who died untimely. The rites are performed on odd-numbered days, because even-numbered days are unlucky.

This is the procedure: The head of the family rises at midnight. He is barefoot; no knots constrict his feet. He makes la mano fico -- the sign of the fig (closed fingers, thumb between first and second fingers) -- to ward away any spirits. He washes his hands in clean spring water. With averted eyes he throws beans (which the dead favor) to the spirits, saying:

"Haec ego mitto, his redimo meque meosque fabis." ("These I cast; with these beans I redeem both me and mine.")

Thrice three times he does this, never looking back, for the spirits follow behind. Then he washes again, clashes objects of bronze, and says thrice three times:

"Manes exite paterni!" ("Manes of my ancestors, begone!")

Then it is safe to look back, for the banishing is complete. [OF V.429-444, pp. 424-5]

Thargelia (Grk., c. May 21) Ancient: 7 Thargelion (first quarter).
The Thargelia, which is probably identical to the ancient Thalusia (First-fruit Offering), is a harvest festival celebrated when the corn is threshed. Although in many cases the time varies from farm to farm, and coincides with the actual completion of the harvest (May or June), since it is a festival for Apollo (as a guardian of crops), it nominally occurs on the seventh day, His birthday. It has two parts, purification and offering.

The sixth day (the birthday of His sister, Artemis) is a day of purification, and two (preferably unattractive) men, the Pharmakoi (Scape-Goats), who have been fed by the people, are led around the city, and then driven away by fig-branches and (poisonous) squill-bulbs (used for purification). One Pharmakos wears a necklace of black figs, which represent the men of the city, and the other wears one of white figs, representing the women.

The following day is for a first-fruits offering to the God; the Thargelos is made by boiling corn and other vegetables in a pot. There are separate hymn singing contests for men's and boys' choirs; the winners receive a tripod, which they then dedicated to the God. [NFR 24, 26; PFA 147-9]

Lesser Festivals

Cerialia (Rom., Apr 19) Ancient: XIII Kal. May.
Country folk make offerings of spelt (a kind of wheat) and salt, perhaps in the form of mola salsa (sacrificial cakes), to Ceres, and pour libations of milk, honey and wine. [SFR 103]

Floralia (Rom., Apr. 28) Ancient: IV Kal. May (dark of moon).
This was a spring-time fertility festival for Mater Flora (Mother Flora), the flower and vegetation Goddess recognized from the most ancient times. People wear gayly colored clothes and there are lights everywhere to go with the bright colors of the flowers in the fields. Tables are decorated with roses and revellers wear garlands. Hares and goats -- both known for their fertility -- are released to run free, and vetches, beans and lupins are thrown among the people to confer fertility. This is also a time of rudeentertainment and sexual license. [OF V.321-374; SFR 110-1]

Festival for Maia and Mercury (Rom., May 15) Ancient: Id. May (full moon).
The Ides of May are Mercury's birthday, and so He and His mother, Maia, are celebrated on this day. Devotees of Mercury, especially merchants, draw sacred water from the Aqua Mercurii (a spring) into fumigated jugs. They dip laurel branches into this water and sprinkle it over their goods and their own

hair while praying for future success in their endeavors. This day is also sacred to Jupiter, as are the Ides of every month. [SFR 122]

Gk. Hai Therinai Heliou Tropai.

The month of June is under the guardianship of Mercury and is sacred to Hercules and Fons Fortuna. The first half of the month is ill-omened, and as little business as possible is conducted at this time.

Plunteria (Grk., mid-June) Ancient: last week of Thargelion (mid-May - mid-June), perhaps 25 Thargelion.
This is the festival for washing (plunteria hiera) the ancient statue of Athena Polias (Guardian of the City); bathing sacred images was a common custom in Greece and elsewhere. (Women have cleaned the temple a few days earlier in a rite called the Kallunteria, which means "to beautify by sweeping." At this time, the priestess also refills and relights Athena's eternal flame in the temple.) The day is considered unlucky (apophras) because the Goddess is absent from the city; it begins a rupture of the normal order, a void between the old year (which ends in a month) and the new.

Women remove the peplos (robe) and jewelry from the ancient image of Athena, which is then wrapped and carried in a procession to the washing place. The procession is led by a woman carrying a basket of fig pastries, for the fig is an ancient fertility symbol and was the first cultivated food; the sweetmeats may be offered to the Goddess at the shore. Mounted Epheboi (young men) may also accompany the (veiled) image. It is brought to the shore (for it should be purified in running water, especially salt water), where it is bathed by two girls, the Loutrides (Bathers); the peplos may be cleaned at the same time (perhaps by a priest). That evening the Goddess is returned to the temple in a torchlight procession and is clothed with the clean peplos and adorned with Her jewels. Only the Loutrides and the women who dress and undress the Goddess are permitted to see Her naked.

The ancient statue was of human size or less, carved of olive wood, and probably showed the Goddess seated without weapons. She wore a tall, golden stephane (crown) and She may have had a Gorgoneion (Medusa head) on her breast. [BGR 228; PFA 152-5; SFA 46-8]

Arrhephoria (Grk., mid-June) The exact date is unknown, but it was near the beginning the month of Skiraphorion (mid-June - mid-July).
Two young girls (perhaps seven years old), the Arrhephoroi (perhaps "Carriers of Unspoken Things") who are the ritual daughters of the Archon Basileus (Priest-King), have spent the preceding year living by the temple of Athena Polias. Some say they have been weaving a new peplos (robe) for Athena, which they will bring to Her in the sacred procession (see Panathenaia, c. Aug. 14).

In a secret nocturnal rite, the Priestess gives the Arrhephoroi a package, the contents of which are hidden from all three. They take the package by a secret path to the sanctuary of Aphrodite in the Gardens, and bring back another secret package. Thereafter the Arrhephoroi are replaced by two new girls. This rite recalls when Athena gave the casket containing Erichthonios to the daughters of King Kekrops, who acted as nurses. Two of them disobeyed Her order not to look in the casket, and when they saw the serpent-man they jumped to their deaths from the Acropolis. The name of the faithful nurse was Pandrosos (All-dew), or, according to others, the two self-sacrificing daughters were Pandrosos and Herse (which also means Dew). (The festival's name might also be spelled Ersephoria - Dew Carrying.) The olive tree, which was Athena's special gift to Athens, bears small olives if there is not sufficient dew at this time of year. Aphrodite, as Goddess of the Morning and Evening Star, was responsible for the dew, and so Her cooperation was essential.

The Arrhephoroi wear white robes and eat Anastatos (Made-to-rise), a special light bread. [BGR 228-9; LSJ s.v. Arrhephoroi; PFA 141-3; SFA 39-46]

Skiraphoria (Grk., c. June 27) Ancient: 12 Skiraphorion (full moon).
The Skiraphoria (also known as the Skira) occurs at the time of the cutting and threshing of the grain. The Priestess of Athena, the Priest of Poseidon and the Priest of Helios go to the Skiron, a place sacred to Demeter, Kore, Athena Skiras and Poseidon Pater, for here Athens and Eleusis were reconciled. Athena and Poseidon represent city life, and Demeter and Kore represent agriculture; Helios witnesses Their oaths (as He witnessed the abduction of Kore). The Skiron is where, according to tradition, the first sowing took place. A large, white canopy (called the skiron) is carried over the priests' and priestesses' heads during the procession.

The Skiraphoria is celebrated mainly by women (as men dominate the City Dionysia, Mar. 24-8). To bring fertility, they abstain from intercourse on this day, and to this end they eat garlic to keep the men away. They also throw offerings into the megara - sacred caves of Demeter: cakes shaped like snakes, phalluses and sucking pigs. (These become the Thesmoi - things laid down - that are removed in the Thesmophoria, c. Oct. 26.) This ceremony recalls the swineherd Eubouleus who was swallowed up with his pigs when Persephone was abducted into the underworld by Hades.

The men have a race in which they carry vine-branches from the sanctuary of Dionysos to the temple of Athena Skiras. The winner is given the Pentaploa (Fivefold Cup), containing wine, honey, cheese, some corn and olive oil. He alone is allowed to share this drink with the Goddess, to whom a libation is poured so that She will bless these fruits of the season. [NFR 25; OCD s.v. Sciraphoria; PFA 156-161; SFA 19, 22-4]

Lesser Festivals

Festival for Fors Fortuna (Rom., June 24) Ancient: VIII Kal. June.
Fors Fortuna (Fortune) was honored on this day, the Summer Solstice in the old calendar. This is a time of happy and even drunken celebration; rides on boats decorated with flowers are especially popular. Sellers of flowers, vegetables, wool, bronze, etc. bring their goods to market, which they sell with praises to Fortuna, or they dedicate them to the Goddess. [OF VI.771-784; SFR 155-6]

Gk. To Mesoun Theros or To Statheron Theros.

The heat of the summer is past its peak and the harvest is nearing completion. This is the month of Hekatombaion (nominally mid-July to mid-August), which began the Athenian year. [SFA 5; SFR 169]

Panathenaia (Grk., c. Aug. 14) Ancient: 28 Hekatombaion (dark of the moon).
The Panathenaia is, in effect, the celebration of Athena's birthday, for according to tradition 28 Hekatombion was the day She burst from Zeus's head (depicted on the east pediment of the Parthenon). Though it is Her day, all the Olympians attend the festivities (as we see in the east frieze), for They were also all present at Her birth. This is a sacred feast at which gods and mortals celebrate Athena's birthday together.

The day before the Panathenaic procession is a festival called Pannukhis (All-night Vigil - a common feature of Greek festivals, since they begin at sunset, like Roman festivals). At sunrise the sacred fire is fetched from the altar of Eros in the Academy, where a sacrifice was made to Eros and Athena. (An altar to Prometheus, who brought fire to mortals, was also in the Academy.) A torch race brings the fireto the altar of Athena.

Every fourth year the Greater Panathenaia is held, for which a new peplos (robe) is woven for the Goddess (Her birthday present). Its middle stripe of panels display the Gigantomachy, the battle of

the Giants and the Olympians (depicted in the east metopes of the Parthenon), which symbolizes the triumph of civilization over savagery. The procession brings the peplos through the city, hung like a sail on the mast of a wheeled ship, which is steered by priests and priestesses adorned with colorful garlands; mounted Epheboi (young men) may accompany the procession. The ship is left at the entrance of the sacred precincts and the peplos is carried the rest of the way by itself or on the mast alone.

At the head of the Panathenaic procession are the Kanephoroi, the gold-bedecked girls who carry the Kana, the holy offering baskets, which they give to the marshals at the altar. The Kana contain the barley that is thrown over the sacrifice and covers the sacrificial implements in the Kana. Next come the Ergastinai (Workers), who wove the new peplos, and other girls bring bowls, jugs, incense burners and additional ritual implements.

In ancient times the procession split into two lines. The north line brought a cow for Athena Polias, the Bronze Age city guardian, and a ewe for Pandrosos (one of the daughters of Kekrops). They were sacrificed at the altar in the "Old Temple," which the Goddesses shared, and the roasted meat was eaten by the priests and officials. This indoor rite is older than the outdoor sacrifice, which was the destination of the south line, which brought cattle to Athena Parthenos, the patron of democracy, at the "Big Altar" outside the Parthenon, where the roasted meat was given to the public.

In the more sacred northern procession the victor(s) of the torch race (one victor in the Lesser anathenaia, all four in the Greater) may bring water to the sacrifice in the hudria (water jugs) they won in the races; they serve as Hudriaphoroi (Water Bearers). They are followed by musicians, such as lyre players (Kitharodoi) and flutists (Auletes), since music usually accompanies sacrifices. The musicians are elegantly dressed, for example, in a sleeved chiton (tunic), a peplos (robe) and a himation (mantle), as we see on the north frieze of the Parthenon (slabs VII and VIII).

In both lines there are Skaphephoroi (Tray Bearers), purple-gowned young men who carry bronze or silver trays of cakes and honeycombs on their shoulders. (They followed the torch victors in the northern procession and the cattle in the southern procession.) After the Tray Bearers in the procession come the Thallophoroi (Sprig Bearers), good-looking Elders who carry sprigs of the sacred olive trees, and the other celebrants. Non-Hellenes carry oak branches. The number Four organizes the procession: four Hudriaphoroi, four Kitharodoi, four Auletes, four ewes and four cows.

The peplos is dismounted from the mast, if necessary, and folded by a young boy or girl and a priest (the Archon Basileus), who will give it to the priestess of Athena Polias. The girl may be one of the Arrhephoroi (see the Arrephoria of mid-June), who are the ritual daughters of the Archon; the boy, who is his ritual son, may be the lad charged with feeding the Holy Snake. They correspond to the three daughters and the son of Kekrops, the serpent-man who was the first king of Athens and a great benefactor of the people.

Children assist in many other ways; some carry accerai (Lat., incense boxes) to fill the thumiateria (incense burners). They also carry small, sacred tables and chairs, which are set up to entertain the chthonic goddesses allied with Athena: Pandrosos (All Bedewed) and Ge Kourotrophos (Nursing Mother Earth, a patron of nurses). Ge Kourotrophos has the bigger chair, since She is more important than Pandrosos, for Ge receives the prothuma (first offering) at all Athenian sacrifices, perhaps barley from the Kanoun (holy basket) or the honey cakes born by the Tray Carriers (both typical offerings to chthonic deities). The city is especially thankful to Her for beautiful children and young women, who walk together in the procession. The thirtieth Homeric Hymn thanks Mother Earth for "well-ordered states with women fair," where their sons exult with youthful merriment; their daughters play in dances flower-strewn with happy heart, and skip through fields abloom. Such givest Thou, Holy Rich Divinity.

Notice that, like the sacrificial victims, which must be blemish-free, good-looking and distinguished people (hoi kaloi k'agathoi) are prominent in the procession - the Goddess is honored with the best the city has to offer. The new peplos is placed on Athena's knees as a gift, and is later stored in the treasury; She is not rerobed at this time, which was done in the Plunteria (mid-June). Sacrifices are also made for Athena Hugieia (Goddess of Health) and Nike (Victory).

In the Greater Pananthenaia, the three or four days following the procession are occupied by Agones (contests) of sport (races, boxing and wrestling) and art (music, poetry). Traditionally the prize for athletes is a "Panathenaic amphora" containing olive oil from the Goddess's sacred grove, and the prize for artists is a gilded crown of wild olives and sometimes money. There may be contests for children, for which they are awarded plain crowns of olive.

Ten officials called Hieropoioi (Managers of the Rites) organized the Lesser Panathenaia; the ten Agonothetai (Contest Directors) managed the Greater. [BGR 232-3; PFA 34-39, 42-9; SFA Ch. 4]

Aphrodisia (Grk., c. July 21) Ancient: 4 Hekatombaion.
This is the bathing festival of Aphrodite Pandemos (Aphrodite of All Peoples) and Peitho (Persuasion), Her helper, who have been considered powerful goddesses since the archaic period; like Ishtar They are goddesses of war and statecraft as well as love.

First the temple is purified (in ancient times with the blood of a dove, Aphrodite's bird) and the altar is annointed. Finally the sacred images are carried in a procession to a place where they are washed (see the Plunteria, mid-June, for a discussion of washing festivals). (Note that the fourth day of every month is sacred to Aphrodite.) [SFA 48-50]

Kronia (Grk., c. July 30) Ancient: 12 Hekatombaion.
The Kronia is a festival in honor of Kronos as a god of the grain harvest, who is depicted with a reaping hook; on this day a harvest supper celebrates the final end of the harvest. More broadly it is (like the Saturnalia) a celebration of the Golden Age ruled by Kronos and Rhea, when there was no labor or oppression. Since this was before Zeus brought order to the world, the Kronia is a chaotic festival. In ancient times, slaves were allowed to run riot in the streets, and were invited to sumptuous banquets by their masters. During the Kronia we are allowed a temporary return to the Golden Age, to equality, luxury, ease and unconstrained freedom. [BGR 231-2; PFA 29-30]

Festival for Diana (Rom., Aug. 13) Ancient: Id. Sext. (full moon)
The Ides of August are sacred to many gods, but especially Diana.In addition to being a protector of women and a patron of hunters, since ancient times She has been a protector of slaves. (Her temple on the Aventine was an asylum for runaway slaves, and slaves were allowed to attend Her rites.) Thus this day was a holiday for all slaves, perhaps as a reward for the toil of the harvest. Nowadays we take it as a celebration of tasks completed, during which people of all occupations feast together. Women make a habit of washing their hair on this day.

The Ides of August are sacred to Jupiter (as are the Ides of every month). Also honored on the Ides of August are Vertumnus (an Etruscan patron of trade), Hercules Victor, the Gemini (Castor and Pollux), Hecate, Flora and the Camenae (deities of springs, eventually identified with the Muses). [SFR 173-4]

Lesser Festivals

Neptunalia (Rom., Jul. 23) Ancient: X Kal. Sext.
A festival in honor of Neptune, originally as protector of the water supply, later as patron of seafarers. The security of water supply is especially critical during this dry time of the year. Thus, two days later the Furrinalia is celebrated for Furrina, a minor goddess of wells and springs. [SFR 168-9]

Consualia (Rom., Aug. 21) Ancient: XII Kal. Sept.
Consus is a god of the harvested grain and its storage (cf. condo, to store, preserve, etc.); on this day the harvest-home is celebrated by a sacrifice at His underground altar: when the earth is removed from the altar He is given burnt first-fruit offerings. Working horses and asses are hung with garlands, given a day of rest, and honored by horse races etc. Consus is associated with Ops (Goddess of Plenty), who has a festival four days later (as She also does after Consus' autumn sowing festival on Dec. 15). [OLD s.vv. condo, consus; SFR 177-8, 180]

Vulcanalia (Rom., Aug. 23) Ancient: X Kal. Sept.
Vulcan is the god of fire, an ambivalent force of destruction and preservation. His temple is outside the city, because He is too dangerous to be allowed within the walls (especially at this time of year), and His altar is cut into the Lapis Niger (Black Rock). As lord of beneficial fire, He is called Mulciber ("who charms fire") and Quietus (Peaceful), and in the latter role He is associated with Stata Mater (the Mother Goddess who stays advancing fires). In ancient times lay people offered live fish (which normally are safe from Vulcan) and other animals to Vulcan as a substitute for human lives.

Other gods associated with Vulcanus are also honored on this day, including Maia (His wife), Ops (whose is worshipped again in two days), and the Nymphs. [SFR 178-80]

Opening the World of Ceres (Rom., Aug. 24) Ancient: IX Kal. Sept.
On this day the Mundus Cereris (World of Ceres), a two-compartment vaulted ritual pit, is opened, which occurs on only two other days (Oct. 5, Nov. 8). Since its lid, the Lapis Manalis (Stone of the Manes), is considered an Ostium Orci (Gate of Hades), the Manes (ancestral spirits) are freed to roam the streets; therefore no marriages, battles, business or enterprises of any kind is conducted. First-fruit offerings to the Manes may be placed in the pit. [OCD s.v. Mundus; OLD s.v. manalis; SFR 179-81]

Opiconsivia (Rom., Aug. 25) Ancient: VIII Kal. Sept.
The Opiconsivia is a festival for Ops Consiva (Plentiful Sowing), who is identified with "Terra (Earth) who supplies all resources (omnes opes)." It follows by four days a festival for Consus (as does Ops' festival on Dec. 19). The sacrifice is conducted by the Rex Sacrorum (King of Holy Things), who wears the suffibulum (white veil), and by the Vestal Virgins, who are his symbolic daughters. They are the only ones allowed to enter the sacrarium (shrine) of Ops, whither they bring offerings of the fruits of the earth on a praefericulum ("that which is born in front"), a kind of broad bronze basin without handles. [OLD s.vv. consero, consiua, Opeconsiua, praefericulum; SFR 180-1]

Gk. He Isemeria Phthinoporine.

Many of the Greek and Roman festivals of this season celebrate the end of the military campaigning season. At the end of September and beginning of October, however, the emphasis shifts to the Corn Mothers and other agricultural deities. In many Greek states the month beginning mid-September was called Demetrion after Demeter (though it was called Boedromion in Athens). [PFA 53]

Great Mysteries (Grk., c. Sept. 29-Oct. 5) Ancient: 15-21 Boedromion (the festival begins on the full moon and continues to the third quarter).

In origin the Great (Eleusinian) Mysteries were a festival for the autumn sowing. They are, of course, mysteries, so some things about them remain concealed, in particular, the contents of the Sacred Kistai (boxes) and the actual initiation of the Mustai (Initiates). Anyone can be initiated, regardless of age or sex.

The festival is conducted by the Archon Basileus and four assistants. Two of these, the Hierophantes and Dadoukhos (Torch Bearer) wear the ependutes (a long-sleeved tunic ornamented at the hem and shoulders), headband and Thracian knee-boots; they carry one or two long torches. Further, there are Mustagogoi (Initiate Guides), who guide individual postulants, often their friends, through the initiation.

Preparatory

Preparations begin two days before the Mysteries proper (13 Boedromion, c. Sept. 27): on the 13th two mounted Epheboi (Youths) travel to Eleusis and on the 14th they accompany Ta Hiera (the Holy Things), contained in round Kistai bound with purple ribbons, which are brought by wagon to Athens, where they are received at the shrine (Eleusinion). (Mylonas has guessed that Ta Hiera are Mycenean goddess figures.) An official, the Phaidruntes (Cleaner) of the Two Goddesses, reports their arrival to Athena's priestess (as at the Skira, c. June 27, Athena's priestess pays her respects to Demeter's). (The Two Goddesses are, of course, Demeter and Persephone, but Their names are considered too sacred to be mentioned in the rites.)

1st day: Agurmos (Gathering)

The would-be Mustai, who must have already been initiated in the Lesser Mysteries (February), gather in the Agora. The Kerukes (Herald) calls for them to step forward, and informs them that they must have "a soul conscious of no evil" and that they "must have lived well and justly." Those afflicted by blood-guilt or other impurity are warned away. At this time names may be taken, and it may be ensured that the postulant is already initiated in the Lesser Mysteries. The postulant spends the remainder of the day in spiritual exercises recommended by his or her Mustagogos.

2nd day: "Seaward, Initiates"

The second day is for purification. The postulants travel to the sea (or other place of ritual cleansing). On the order "Seaward Initiates!" they enter the water with their offering so that both may be purified by salt water.

In ancient times the offering was a piglet, which was supplied to the postulant, for the pig is sacred to Demeter. In the evening the piglet was sacrificed and the postulant was sprinkled with its blood; later there might be a feast on the pork.

3rd day: "Hither the Victims"

The third day is for the main sacrifice to the Two Goddesses.

4th day: Epidauria

On this day the postulant secludes him or herself indoors to prepare mentally for the initiation. There are also celebrations for the god Asclepius, for on this day in 420 BCE He came, with His daughter Hugieia (Health) and His sacred snake, and requested the Eleusinian initiation.

5th day: March to Eleusis

The mounted Epheboi, the postulant Mustai, their Mustagogoi, initiated Mustai, and the officials escort Ta Hiera back to Eleusis. The procession begins at the shrine of Iakkhos, and His priest, the Iakkhagogos (Iakkhos Guide), leads the procession with the sacred image of Iakkhos, which depicts Him as a torch-bearing youth. Iakkhos is the Eleusinian name of Dionysos/Bacchus; in the procession He is the joyous attendant of the Two Goddesses, and mediates between Them and the Mustai. The marchers are accompanied by musicians (flute, harp, voice); all join in the ecstatic cry, "Iakkhe!" (Shout!).

The Mustai wear garlands of myrtle and may carry bakkhoi, which are bundles of myrtle branches tied with wool; they may also carry a sack of travel necessities on a pole. Religious observances are made at sacred sites along the way. At one place the Krokidai tie a yellow woolen thread (kroke) on the right hand and left leg of each postulant. At another place disguised men verbally abuse the postulants, which may drive away bad luck. The final part of the procession is by torchlight, because Demeter is traditionally depicted seeking Kore by torchlight.

At night the postulant offers to Demeter the Kernos, which is an earthenware dish with many small cups attached; small offerings of the fruits of the earth (grain, peas, beans, etc.) are placed in the cups. The postulant shares these with the Goddess.

6th day: Initiation

On the day of Initiation sacrifices of corn meal are made to the Two Goddesses. In sympathy with Demeter when She mourned the absent Kore, the postulants fast and prepare themselves mentally for the sacred rite. Towards evening, like Demeter when She accepted the drink from Meteneira, the postulants drink the Kukeon (mixed drink), comprising water, barley meal and pennyroyal. (There is debate about the ingredients of the Kukeon, but this is the formula given in the "Homeric Hymn to Demeter," ll. 208-9.)

The initiation, which lasts through the night, takes place in a closed building called the Telesterion (Initiation Place); in its center is the Anaktoron (House of the Anax = King), the "Holy of Holies" to which no-one but the Hierophantes (Revealer) is admitted. The specifics of the initiation are, of course, secret, and have not been revealed to this day (though a great deal of conjecture has been published). However, they involve Things Said, Things Done and Things Revealed. There is music, song and speech; there are ritual actions; there are revelations by torch light. Thereby the Mustai participate in the Demeter's joy at the restoration of Persephone. The effect of the Mysteries on the initiate is profoundly transformative. Even the clothes worn during the initiation are consecrated thereafter.

The Epoptai (Those Who Have Seen) are the initiates of the highest level (who must have been Mustai for at least one year), who have beheld the supreme symbol of Demeter, as Triptolemos, the first Mustes, beheld it, and they have witnessed the Hieros Gamos (Sacred Marriage) of Demeter and Zeus.

7th day: Plemokhoai

Each Mustes has two water-filled Plemokhoai (Flowing Floodtides), which are earthenware vessels shaped like a spinning-top; one is tipped out to the east and the other to the west, while the Mustes pronounces a spell known only to initiates. [LEM 155; NFR 25; PFA 59-72; SFA 24-35]

Feast of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva (Rom., Sept. 13) Ancient: Id. Sept. (full moon).
The Ides (full moon) of every month are sacred to Jupiter, as the Kalends (new moon) are to Juno. This day is an Epulum (feast) for the Capitoline Triad (Jupiter, Juno and Minerva), so statues of the three deities are present, dressed in festal robes, and represent Their attendance at the feast. The face of Jupiter's image is reddened with minium (red lead) and He reclines on a lectulus (couch); Juno and Minerva sit on sellae (chairs).

The feast begins with a sacrifice to Jove (in ancient times it might have been a white heifer, since Jupiter and Juno prefer white sacrifices), at which mola salsa (salt meal) made by the Vestal Virgins is used. The Vestals' mola salsa, which is made from the first ears of the previous harvest, is used at only two other times (Vestalia, Jun. 9, and Lupercalia, Feb. 15). For the feast proper, tables of food are set before the images of the Gods and music accompanies the festivities.

Although September is under the protection of Vulcan, most of the honor goes to Jupiter. The Ludi (Games) both proceed and follow the Feast for the Capitoline Triad (in ancient times the Ludi lasted Sept. 5-19). There are races, wrestling, parades and performances of various sorts. [SFR 23, 183-7]

Lesser Festivals

Genesia (Grk., c. Sept. 19) Ancient: 5 Boedromion (nominally mid-Sept. - mid-Oct.).
This is the Athenian festival in honor of the dead. (Of course families honor their own dead on their anniversaries.) There are lamentations and speeches of praise. In ancient times, the vernal equinox (approximately) ended the summer campaigning season, so several of these festivals (Genesia, Artemis Agrotera, Boedromia) relate to the cessation of fighting. [PFA 53-4]

Festival for Artemis Agrotera (Grk., c. Sept 20) Ancient: 6 Boedromion.
This day is a feast for Artemis Agrotera (Huntress), for the sixth day is Her birthday. (After the Athenian victory at Marathon this festival became known as Kharisteria, "Thanksgiving.") [PFA 54-5; SFA 82]

Boedromia (Grk., c. Sept. 21) Ancient: 7 Boedromion (first quarter).
This is a minor thanksgiving festival for Apollo (since the seventh day is His birthday), in gratitude to Him as a rescuer in war. [PFA 53]

Festival for Apollo and Latona (Rom., Sept. 23) Ancient: IX Kal. Oct.
A minor festival for Apollo and His mother, Latona; it corresponds approximately to the Boedromia. [SFR 188]

Festival for Venus Genetrix (Rom., Sept. 26) Ancient: VI Kal. Oct.
A minor festival for Venus Genetrix (The Mother who Brings Forth). [SFR 188]

Festival for Fides (Rom., Oct. 1) Ancient: Kal. Oct. (new moon).
A minor festival in honor of Fides (Good Faith). The priests show their good faith, and protect the shrine from pollution, by wrapping their hands as far as their fingers. Similarly, the right hand of the image of the Goddess was bound in white. [SFR 189-90]

Fast for Ceres (Rom., Oct 4) Ancient: IV Non. Oct.
This is similar to the fast (Lat., ieiunium) for Demeter on the second day of the Thesmophoria (c. Oct. 25), on which there was a fast (Grk., nesteia) for Demeter. The following day (Oct. 5) the Mundus Cereris (World of Ceres), a vaulted ritual pit, is opened, which occurs on only three days (see Aug. 24). [SFR 190-1]

Meditrinalia (Rom., Oct. 11) Ancient: V Id. Oct.
This is a festival of healing (mederi = to be healed). Offerings of new and old wine are poured and tasted, while repeating:

Of wine that's new and wine that's old I drink;
Of illness new and illness old I'm cured.

[SFR 192]

Fontinalia (Rom., Oct. 13) Ancient: III Id. Oct.
This is a festival for Fons, the god of springs, and so garlands are thrown into springs and used to decorate wells. [SFR 192]

Gk. To Mesoun Phthinoporon. (conjectured)

In the Greek and Roman worlds, there are comparatively few festivals in October and November,which is the seed-time (Gr. sporetos), a season of ploughing and sowing. Women figure prominently inthese festivals since in neolithic times they were responsible for crops raising (by the Bronze Age itbecame a male occupation). [SFA 17, 82, SFR 196]

Puanepsia (Grk., c. Oct. 22) Ancient: 7 Puanepsion (first quarter).
The Puanepsia is a festival of late autumn fruit gathering that seeks divine blessings for the autumn sowing. This very ancient festival is primarily in honor of Phoebos Apollo as sun god, but also for Helios (Sun) and the Horai (Hours); all are considered vegetation deities, perhaps through Their connection with the sun. Further, since Mycenaean times the earth-born Athenians have considered themselves descendants of the Sun (whom the Myceneans may have called Pa-ya-wo = Phoebos = Bright) and Ge (Earth). Thus the festival is held on the seventh day, for on the seventh of each (Greek) month (which is the first quarter of the moon) Apollo's birthday is celebrated. The Puanepsia corresponds to the spring Thargelia (7 Thargelion, c. May 22).

In the procession each Pais Amphithales (Child with Two Living Parents) carries an Eiresione. Typicallyan Eiresione is an olive branch carried by a supplicant and wrapped round with wool (eiros = wool),but in this case it is a laurel branch (sacred to Apollo), perhaps two to three feet long, decorated withreal fruit and models of harps, cups and vine-branches made of pastry, all symbols of fruitfulness. In akind of Trick-or-Treat the children bring these to each house and sing:

Th' Eiresione bears rich cakes and figs and honey in a jar, and olive oil to sanctify yourself, and cups of mellow wine that you may drink and fall asleep.

If the occupant gives a gift to the children, he earns an Eiresione and the yearlong blessing it conveys. Normally it is fastened above the door of the house, as it is over the door of the sanctuary of Apollo when the procession reaches it. If no Pais Amphithales comes to your home, you may bless it with your own Eiresione.

The festival derives its name from a stew of boiled beans (puanon epsein = to boil beans) and other leguminous vegetables and cereals that is boiled in a pot (khutros) and shared by the celebrants and the God; it is a typical Greek Panspermia (All-seeds). According to legend this was the votive offering Theseus and his crew made to Apollo when they returned to Greece on this day, for it was all that was left of their provisions. On the other hand, it is typical of a sowing ritual to combine all the edible plants to be sown and to share them with the God, praying that the next year may be bountiful. [NFR 29; PFA 75-7; SFA 75-7, 107]

Oskhophoria (Grk., c. Oct. 22) Ancient: 7 Puanepsion (first quarter).
The Oschophoria is a vintage and wine-pressing festival, in thanks to Dionysos, held on the same day as the Puanepsia, when the Mysteries of Dionysos were also held. Thus we find the two apparent polar opposites, Dionysos and Apollo, honored on the same day, but we must not forget that They also shared the sanctuary at Delphi: Apollo honored there in the summer, Dionysos in winter (when Apollo is in Hyperborea). An ancient krater (mixing bowl) shows them shaking hands over the Omphalos at Delphi.

There is a procession from the temple of Dionysos to the temple of Athena Skira, for the grape harvest is one aspect of Her concern for the well-being of the community (cf. the Arrhephoria and Skiraphoria, both in mid-late June). This aspect of Athena may derive from the vine goddess Skiras, worshipped in Salamis, whence She came to Athens (see the Skiraphoria discussion for another idea of the meaning of skira).

The procession is headed by the two Oskhophoroi (Vine-branch Bearers), young men who carrybranches still bearing grapes (oskhoi) and are dressed as women, which recalls the androgyny of Dionysos, for they wear the same Ionic khiton (ankle-length tunic) as He sometimes does. Behind them comes a chorus singing special hymns to the God.

They are accompanied by a herald, who has a garland wrapped round his staff, rather than around his head, as would be the normal custom. This was explained by the Theseus myth: when his herald told the Athenians of Theseus' return, in their joy they tried to crown him with a wreath, but he refused it because he had learned of the tragic death of Theseus' father. Therefore he returned to Theseus with the wreath wrapped around his staff.

The procession also includes Deipnophoroi (Dinner Carriers), women who bring the food for the sacred feast that follows the sacrifice. A portion of the meat is burned for the God and some is eaten by the celebrants; the rest is divided to be taken home. Stories are told during the feast, especially the story of Theseus and Ariadne, and how she was claimed by Dionysos. The Deipnophoroi represent the Mothers of the Twice-Seven, who brought meat, bread and heartening stories to their children, the seven maids and seven lads chosen to sail to Crete to be sacrificed to the Minotaur (a ritual confrontation of 14 "Beauties" with the Beast.).

The legend also explains the transvestite Oskhophoroi, for Theseus chose two boys with girlish features, and trained them to walk and act like girls so that they might substitute for two of the condemned girls to protect the others. In the festival they carry vine-branches and lead the procession, as they did in Theseus' triumph, in thanks to Dionysos and Ariadne. (Of course, such transvestitism is not unusual in the rituals of Greece or other cultures.) When the procession arrives at the sanctuary, there are songs, both happy and sad, and libations are poured to the God, followed by shouts of:

Eleleu! Iou! Iou!

The yell is paradoxical in that "Eleleu!" (pronounced "e-le-LOO!") is a cry of encouragement (from elelizo, to rally), whereas "Iou!" (pron. "yew!") is a cry of woe (Latin Heu!). This was explained by the mixed joy and grief of Theseus' return and his father's death, but it also celebrates the death and resurrection of Dionysos as Vegetation God. [NFR 34-5; PFA 77-81; SFA 89-92]

Theseia (Grk., c. Oct. 23) Ancient: 8 Puanepsion (first quarter).
The eighth of every month is sacred to Poseidon, so it is appropriate that His son,Theseus is honored on this day following the Puanepsia and Oskophoria (as well as on the eighths of other months). There is a procession, sacrifices, athletic games (team torch-races and track and field events), and a feast at

which meat is distributed to the people (celebrating Theseus as popular benefactor and democratic hero). The feast includes Athare (or Athera), a porridge of husked wheat and milk. [PFA 81-2]

Thesmophoria (Grk., c. Oct. 26-28) Ancient: 11-13 Puanepsion.
The Thesmophoria is a celebration of Sporetos (Seed-time), the autumn sowing, dedicated to Demeter and restricted to women. (This is unusual in the Greek world for, although Gods often had Priests and Goddesses Priestesses, the festivals were usually open to both men and women. Cf. the Festival for Bona Dea, c. Dec. 3.) Although the ceremony is a women's mystery, this much may be said.

Stenia
The Thesmophoria proper is preceded by two days (i.e. on 9 Puanepsion, c. Oct. 24) by the Stenia, a nocturnal women's festival for Demeter and Persephone in preparation for the Thesmophoria. The women engage in Aiskhrologia (Foul language, abuse), hurling insults at one another to commemorate the way in which Iambe made the grieving Demeter laugh (see the Homeric Hymn to Demeter). This may also be when the Thesmoi (Things Laid Down) are placed into the caverns at the sanctuary of Demeter; they include dough models of snakes and male genitalia and pork from sacrificed piglets, all fertility symbols (pigs because of their fecundity); in this way the womb of The Mother is fertilized; they will be removed in the Thesmophoria proper. (Others say that the Thesmoi are deposited in theSkiraphoria, c. June 27.)

1st Day: Anodos (Ascent)
During the Thesmophoria proper the women camp for three days in the Thesmophorion, the hillside sanctuary of Demeter Thesmophoros. Under the direction of two Arkhousai (Officials), the women set out in procession with the necessary supplies for three days and two nights, and set up their encampment, which takes the form of rows of shelters or huts with walkways between them. The women sleep on the ground, generally two to a hut.

2nd Day: Nesteia (Fast)
On the second day the women sit on the ground and abstain from all solid food in humility and sympathy for Demeter's mourning (when she also refused a chair), but also to transfer their strength to the soil. As hunger begins to gnaw their stomachs, they again engage in Aiskhrologia (abusive language); some say, recalling Iambe and Demeter, that their taunts are spoken in iambic verse, the traditional meter of mockery. The women may also whip each other with a scourge made of morotton (woven bark). Aristophanes' Thesmophoriazusae contains two beautiful hymns typical of those sung on the day; they are too long to be reproduced here (ll. 969-1000 and 1136-1159; pp. 135-6 and 141-2 in the Barrett translation, Penguin Books, 1964).

3rd Day: Kalligeneia (Fair Offspring)
Nightfall brings the official beginning of the third day, and there is a torch-light ceremony, for Demeter sought Persephone by torch light. Some say that this is when the Thesmoi are removed from the earth by Priestesses called Antletriai (Bailers), of whom three day's ritual purity (including sexual abstinence) is required. While women clap to scare away the sacred snakes that guard the caverns, the Antletriai go down into the caves, collect the Thesmoi in buckets, and place the putrefying matter on the altars of Demeter and Persephone. Later this "compost" is removed from the altars and mixed with the grain to be sown the following month (i.e., late Nov. to early Dec.). In this rite we truly see the role of the cycle of life and death in the fertilization of the Earth.

The fast is ended and the rest of the day is spent in joyous celebration of the gift of beautiful children, until the women break camp and return home. [NFR 24; PFA 82-8; SFA 18-22]

Apaturia (Grk., between c. Oct 15 and c. Nov 15) Ancient: three or more consecutive days in Puanepsion.
Each Phratria (Clan) determines when its Apaturia (perhaps "Feast of the Common Fatherhood") will be held in the month of Puanepsion (mid-Oct. to mid-Nov.).

1st Day: Dorpia (Supper Eve)
This is a day of reunion and feast for the Phratria's members.

2nd Day: Anarrhusis (Sacrificing)
Sacrifices are made to Zeus Phratrios and Athena Phratria, who oversee the Phratriai. Sometimes Dionysos is also included, which is explained by the myth of the fight between Melanthus, the Dark King, and Xanthus, the Fair King. Dionysos, by appearing behind Melanthus in a black goat's skin (Melainaigis), distracted him, and allowed Xanthus to cut him down. Hephaistos may also be honored.

3rd Day: Koureotis (Youths)
On this day there is much celebration as new members are inducted into the Phratria; for many this will be done in the first Apaturia after they are born, though full induction takes place at puberty (when they might offer their cut hair to the Gods). A spouse can also be inducted after marrying a Phratria member. Thus membership is by birth, adulthood or marriage. In each case the parent or other sponsor is supposed to finance the inductee's sacrifice.

4th Day: Epibda (Day Following)
Not a formal part of the festival, the "morning after" for recovering from the preceding revelries. (There is much drinking at the Apaturia.) [PFA 88-92]

Lesser Festivals

Ludi Capitolini: Capitoline Games (Rom., Oct. 15) Ancient: Id. Oct.
The Ludi Capitolini are held in honor of Jupiter, either as Optimus Maximus (Best and Greatest) or Feretrius. The latter name may refer to Him as Striker (from ferire, to strike), since the Roman temple of Jupiter Feretrius contained no statue, but only a sceptre and a silex flint, which had come from a meteor; it symbolizes His role as "Striker of Agreements." As part of the festivities an old man, wearing a child's bulla (amulet), is led through the streets with cries of Sardi venales! (Sardinians for sale!). The reason for this custom was forgotten by Plutarch's time, but perhaps we may interpret the "Sardinian" (identified with the Etruscans by Plutarch) as a scapegoat. [SFR 194-5]

Proerosia (Grk., c. Oct 20) Ancient: 5 Puanepsion.
This is a festival for Demeter's blessings in preparation for the ploughing and sowing at the beginning of the agricultural season (proerosia = things before the time of tillage); in ancient times it was held at Eleusis. It immediately precedes the Puanepsia (see above), held in honor of Pythian Apollo, because His oracle told the Athenians to initiate the Proerosia in order to bring a worldwide famine to an end. Upon command of the Hierophantes, the Sacred Herald proclaims the Proerosia, recounts the myth of its founding, and calls for the first-fruits offering (mostly cereals, especially barley and wheat). [PFA 73-5]

Opening the World of Ceres (Rom., Nov. 8) Ancient: VI Id. Nov.
See Aug. 24.

Festival for Feronia (Rom., Nov. 13) Ancient: Id. Nov.
Feronia (who perhaps came from Etruria) was especially kind to slaves and freed people; She brings the Pilleus (Cap of Freedom) to all those in bondage or freed from it, so She is called Libertas. Her temple was inscribed: Bene meriti servi sedeant, surgant liberi. (Let the deserving sit down as slaves and arise as free people.) She is given money. [SFR 197-8]

Khalkeia (c. Nov. 15) Ancient: 30 Puanopsion (new moon).
On this day the Ergastinai (Workers), comprising the priestess and the Arrhephoroi (see Arrhephoia, mid-June), place wool on the loom for the woof of Athena's new peplos (robe), which will be woven for nine months and will be presented to Her in the Panathenaia (c. Aug. 14). The decoration, like that of a tapestry, represents in bright colors, such as yellow and blue, the Gigantomachy, and especially Athena's defeat of Enkeladus. [PFA 38-9]

Maimakteria (Grk. between Nov. 15 and Dec. 15) Ancient: sometime in Maimakterion.
The winter comes with the beginning of the month Maimakterion (c. Nov. 15), so prayers are addressed to Zeus Maimaktes (Blustering) that He may be kind to people, crops and houses. [PFA 95]

Pompaia (Grk. between Nov. 15 and Dec. 15) Ancient: sometime in Maimakterion.
In a procession (pompaia) through the city, priests carry the Dion Kodion (Sacred Fleece), the skin of a sheep sacrificed to Zeus Meilikhios (Open to Propitiation, Kindly), a chthonic aspect of Zeus in which He appears as a snake and is especially protective of children. In the Pompaia a priest also carries the Caduceus, the magic wand of Hermes with its entwined snakes. By this rite storms and other evil are driven out of the community, and the newly sown grain is protected. A polluted individual may likewise purify himself by standing with his left foot on the Fleece, which absorbs the pollution. Or one may sit barefoot on the fleece, with covered head, and be purified by a priest applying the Liknon (Winnowing Fan). The Pompaia corresponds to the springtime Diasia for Zeus Meilikhios (c. Mar. 10), such spring-fall pairing being common for Greek agricultural festivals. [PFA 95-6, pl. 26; SFA 14]

Festival for Bona Dea (Rom., c. Dec. 3) Ancient: c. III Non. Dec.
Only women are allowed to attend this festival, which is held on a variable day near Dec. 3. Under the supervision of the Vestal Virgins these secret rites seek fertility from the Good Goddess, whose true name may not be spoken. This much may be said: there are games, music, dance and "objects revealed" (as in the Mysteries). In a room gayly decorated with vine leaves, and perhaps myrtle, the Goddess is offered wine under the name of milk (and in ancient times She was offered a pig). [SFR 199-200]

Festival for Faunus (Rom., Dec. 5) Ancient: Non. Dec.
This is the joyous rural festival, described in Horace's Odes (3.18), which calls on Faunus (the "Kindly One," from favere = to help, support) to visit the fields and bless them. Incense is burned on an altar of earth, which is used year after year; wine is offered, and in ancient times a kid was sacrificed. [SFR 201]

Festivals for Tiberinus and Gaia (Rom., Dec. 8) Ancient: VI Id. Dec.
Festivals for Tiberinus Pater, Father Tiber, and Gaia. In times of draught, Tiberinus is prayed to as follows:

Adesto Tiberine cum tuis undis. (Mayest Thou be present, O Tiber, with thy waves.)

One may follow Aeneas (Aen. 8.71) and with your hands scoop water from the river and lift it toward the rising sun while saying the prayer.

Gaia is the Greek word for Earth, not the Latin, and the Goddess honored in this festival is perhaps a Magpie Deity (Scullard claims gaius = magpie) connected with the Tiber. Gaia also means Bride (and Gaius Bridegroom). [SFR 202]

Gk. Hai Kheimeriai Heliou Tropai.

This is a time of rest and celebration after the last sowing, and so agricultural deities, such as Saturn, Ops and Consus, are especially honored. Generally speaking, Graeco-Roman festivals of this season are more concerned with raising human spirits and reviving the crops than with the return of the sun. [PFA 97, 103; SFR 199, 205, 209, 212]

• Saturnalia (Dec 17-23)
• Country Dionysia (c. Jan 1-15)
• Haloa (c. Jan 11)
• Minor Festivals
• Festival for Tellus (Dec. 13)
• Consualia and Opalia (Dec. 15 & 19)
• Festival for Iuventas (Dec. 19)
• Poseidea (Dec. 23)
• Larentalia (Dec. 23)
• Festival for Sol Invictus (Dec. 25)

Saturnalia (Rom., Dec. 17-23; ancient: XVI-X Kal. Jan.)

This most joyous of festivals was called "the best of days" (Catullus 14.15); at various times in the past the festivities have lasted three, five or seven days, during which normal business and many prohibitions are suspended. The Saturnalia (which has much in common with the Kronia, c. Jul. 30) is preceded by the Festival for Tellus and the Consualia and is followed by the Opalia, Angeronalia (Dec. 21), Larentalia and Festival for Sol Invictus, resulting in a holiday season lasting from Dec. 13 to Dec. 25 (the ancient Winter Solstice).

The festival begins with a formal sacrifice at the temple of Saturn (whose name was derived from satus sowing), which is conducted Graeco ritu (by Greek rite), that is, with uncovered head. First the woolen bonds are untied from the statue of Saturn. Next there is a festive banquet at which people dress informally, wearing the synthesis (perhaps a light dressing-gown) and pilei (soft caps), which may be made out of paper (Guhl & Koner 481). At the end of the banquet everyone shouts, "Io Saturnalia!"

At home it is a period of general relaxation, and in ancient times, the master waited on the servants at meal times. The household chooses the Saturnalicius Princeps (Master of the Saturnalia), the "Lord of Misrule," who is free to order others to do his bidding. On the last day it is common to exchange small gifts, such as sigillaria (small pottery dolls) for the children and cerei (candles) for adults.

Of the Saturnalia, Statius said, "Time shall not destroy that Holy Day, so long as the hills of Latium endure and Father Tiber, while your city of Roma and the Capitol remain" - and indeed it has not been destroyed, only disguised. [OCD s.vv. Saturnus, sigillaria; SFR 205-7]

Country Dionysia (Grk., c. Jan 1-15; ancient: last half of Poseideon, i.e. in the first half of Jan.).
This festival for Dionysos, which is called the Country Dionysia (ta Kat' Agrous Dionusia) or Small Dionysia (ta Mikra Dionusia), is not celebrated on any fixed date, but at a time determined by each village. Everyone participates (including, in ancient times, slaves), and in this regard it is like the Saturnalia.

According to Plutarch (3.527D), there is a procession comprising the carriers of a jar of wine and a vine, someone leading a he-goat, next the Kanephoros (Basket-bearer) carrying a basket of raisins, then the carriers of an erect, wooden phallus-pole, decorated with ivy and fillets, and finally the singer of the Phallikon (Phallic Song), which is addressed to "Phales" (see Aristophanes' Acharnians, 247ff, for a comic portrayal), although the procession may be more elaborate.

On Askolia, the second day of the festival, there is the Askoliasmos, a contest to see who can balance longest on top of a greased, inflated wine-skin (askos). Askoliazo may refer to standing on one leg, because there are many other one-legged contests at the festival (e.g., one-legged races, one-legged tag with the raised leg, one-legged hopping endurance). There may also be dramatic contests; indeed Aristotle claimed (Poet. 1449a) that comedy was born in the Country Dionysia. [PFA 100-2; SFA 101-2]

Haloa (Grk., c. Jan 11; ancient: 26 Poseideon)
Most likely the Haloa is a celebration of the pruning of the vines and the tasting of the wine after its first fermentation, or it may be to encourage the growth of corn from the seed. It is named after the halos (the circular threshing-floor) and is in honor of Demeter and Dionysos.

In the earliest times the first part of the festival was restricted to married women, but after the fourth century BCE to hetairai (courtesans). The Eleusinian Arkhontes (Magistrates) prepare a banquet comprising many foods, including phallus- and pudenda-shaped cakes, but not those foods forbidden in the Mysteries (pomegranates, apples, eggs, fowls, some fish).

The Arkhontes then leave, permitting the women to eat, to drink much wine, and to celebrate licentiously. Carrying clay models of phalli and pudenda, they dance on the halos around one or more giant phalli, and engage in ritual obscenity. The women may carry on their heads kernoi (offering dishes) containing incense, grains or other offerings. Offerings may be sprinkled on the phalli, around the bases of which are corn leaves. Some women, including the Priestesses, encourage the other women to take secret lovers.

Afterwards men are admitted and a joyful komos (revel) begins, which develops into an all-night orgy. A Priest and Priestess, with torches representing Demeter and Persephone, sit on chests and preside over the fertility celebration. [NFR 32; PFA 98-9; SFA 35-7]

Festival for Tellus (Rom., Dec. 13; ancient: Id. Dec.)
A festival in honor of Tellus, the most ancient Earth Goddess, and perhaps also in honor of Ceres. [SFR 204-5] Consualia and Opalia (Rom., Dec. 15 & 19; ancient: XVIII & XIV Kal. Jan.)
These festivals are essentially the same as the summer Consualia and Opiconsivia (Aug. 21 & 25, q.v.). We see here a pattern: a festival for Consus (God of the Storage-bin) followed in four days by a festival for Ops (Goddess of Plenty). Between these, there was, in the summer on Aug. 23, another festival for Ops (the wife of Saturn) corresponding to the Saturnalia on Dec. 17. [SFR 177-81, 205]

Festival for Iuventas (Rom., Dec. 19; ancient: XIV Kal. Jan.)
Iuventas is the Goddess of Youth, analogous to Greek Hebe. A celebration is held for all the youth who have come of age (14 years old) in the preceding year. [SFR 208]

Poseidea (Grk. c. Dec. 23; ancient: perhaps 8 Poseideon)
The month of Poseideon was dedicated to Poseidon and the eighth day was especially sacred to him (as was the seventh to Apollo and the sixth to Artemis). (In general the summer months are assigned to Apollo and the winter months to other Gods, since that is when He is in Hyperborea and Dionysos takes His place at Delphi.) Poseidon's name seems to mean "Lord of the Earth" or "Husband of Earth," which reminds us of Saturn, husband of Rhea (Doric Poteidon = Potei-Dan = Lord of Earth, as his sometime wife Demeter = De-Meter = Ge-Meter = Earth-Mother). [OCD s.v. Poseidon; PFA 97-8]

Larentalia (Rom., Dec. 23; ancient: X Kal. Jan.)
This festival honors Acca Larentia. Acca is an obscure Latin word: in Greek akko means a "ridiculous woman" or "bogey"; in Sanskrit akka means "mother." Therefore Acca Larentia seems to be the Mater Larum (Mother of the Lares), who is also called Lara, Larunda, Larentina and Mania. Indeed Larentia was said to be the wife of the shepherd Faustulus (perhaps = Faunus), who found Romulus and Remus (who became the Lares of Rome) when they were being suckled by the she-wolf, and that Larentia became their foster-mother. Others say that Larentia herself was the she-wolf (lupa), and that's why she is celebrated as a prostitute (lupa). In any case, in this festival She is given parental rites (Parentalia) as the mother of the divine ancestors. [LSJ s.v. akko; SFR 210-2]

Festival for Sol Invictus (Rom., Dec. 25; ancient: VIII Kal. Jan.)
The cult of Sol Invictus (Unconquered Sun) was a comparatively late (3rd cent. CE) arrival from the East (Syria). It became the chief imperial cult of the Roman Empire, until it was replaced by Christianity. In the old calendar the winter solstice (Bruma = shortest [day]) fell on Dec. 25, so this was the day on which Sol proved Himself to be yet unconquered. [OCD s.v. Sol; SFR 212]

Gk. To Mesoun Kheimatos

February 5 (the Nones) was the official beginning of spring for the Romans, and February the month of purification. Since it was the last month before the new year, it was a time for wiping the slate clean and starting fresh. Houses are purified by sweeping out and by sprinkling with salt and toasted spelt (a kind of wheat). In the Lupercalia (Feb. 15) both women and fields are slapped with strips of hide to purify and fertilize them. [OF II.19-38; SFC 69-70]

Since this season represents the coming of spring, the rituals focus on purification and fertility. Indeed, February gets its name from februa, or means of purification; the first two weeks are considered a time of abstinence. It's worth noting that the old Roman year began with March and ended with December (which is why it's called December, the "tenth" month), so January and February were originally the unmarked "Terror Time." The following festivals look forward to the coming spring, the new birth after winter. [SO II.4, 2; SFC 69-70]

Sementivae or Paganalia (Rom., Jan. 24) (Ancient: a.d. IX. Kal. Feb. This was a movable feast, however.)
This is the Festival of Sowing (Sementivae) after the seed has been sown and the land fertilized. There is a celebration in the villages (pagi) by which they are purified, and cakes are dedicated on the village hearths (pagani foci). Cakes of spelt and of the pork of the sow are offered to Tellus (Mother Earth), and to Ceres seven days later (Feb. 2). Ovid explains that Ceres gives the corn its vital power and Tellus gives it a place to grow. He presents a prayer to Them that the seeds grow and not be harmed by the weather or pests (an abbreviated version based on Frazer's translation):

Partners in labor, Ye who reformed the days of old,
And who replaced the acorns of the oak by better food,
O satisfy the eager husbandman with boundless crops,
That they may reap the due reward of all their tilling!

He observes that Ceres was nursed by Pax (Peace) and is Her foster child, and he thanks these Godesses for permitting swords to be beaten into plough shares. Also at this time folk may hang oscilla (little swinging figures for protection) in the trees. [OF I.657-700; SFC 68]

Lenaia (Grk., around Jan. 28-31) (Ancient 12-15 Lenaia.)
Though the festival is not well understood, it is probably to bring the spring and fertility. There may be a procession, during which the Daidukhos (Torch-bearer) says, "Invoke the God!" and the celebrants respond, "Son of Semele, Iakkhos, Giver of Wealth!" There are also contests of drama, song and poetry.

The Lenaia is most likely named for the Lenai, who are Maenads. At midnight, clothed and bearing the thyrsus, castanets, tambourines, flutes and torches, they begin an all-night ecstatic dance before a garlanded image of Dionysos. This idol is a simple post, dressed in a man's tunic, with garlanded branches like upraised arms, and with a bearded mask of Dionysos. Before it stands a table with two stamnoi (jugs) of wine and a kantharos (cup) between them; from the stamnoi the dancers dip the intoxicating wine. [PFA 104-4; SFA 100-1]

Festival for Juno Sospita (Rom., Feb 1) (Ancient: Kal. Feb.)
Juno was a Goddess of new beginnings. The kalends (first day) of each month (originally identified with the first sighting of the new moon) were sacred to Her, and January was under Her protection. This festival is in honor of Juno Sospita (Savior), who has connections with the Phrygian Great Mother. She is depicted wearing a goat skin, the head and horns drawn over Her head; She carries a shield and spear (like Minerva) and wears shoes with turned-up toes. Sometimes a snake stands in front of Her (like Minerva). Virgins offer Her barley cakes to ensure their fertility. [SFC 70-1]

Gamelia (Grk., around Feb. 11) (Ancient 26 Gamelion.)
Gamelion (mid. Jan - mid. Feb.) was called the "Month of Marriage," and was a popular time for weddings. The Gamelia, at the end of the month, is a celebration of the Hieros Gamos (Sacred Marriage) of Zeus and Hera; it is considered a harbinger of spring and new beginnings. Few specifics are known, so use your intuition. [PFA 104]

Lupercalia (Rom., Feb 15) (Ancient: XV Kal. Mart.)
This ritual is of such antiquity that even the Romans were ignorant of its precise meaning; it perhaps calls on Pan (or Faunus, often identified with Pan) for fertility (of women and crops), purification and protection ("beating the bounds").

The festival begins with a meeting at the Lupercal, the sacred cave where Romulus and Remus were suckled by the She-wolf (Lupa), of two colleges of priests, the Luperci Quinctiales (or Quintilii), founded by Romulus, and the Luperci Fabiani (or Fabii), founded by Remus. (The etymology of "Lupercus" is obscure.) There is an offering of mola salsa (salt cakes; see Feast of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, Sep. 13), which has been prepared by the Vestal Virgins.

This is the ancient ritual: The priests sacrifice a goat (fertility) and a dog (purification). (Thus the two colleges may be associated with the Goats and the Wolves as embodiments of the Corn Goddess Ceres.) The sacrificial knife is stroked across the forehead of two well-bred youths, leaving a smear of blood, which is then wiped away with milk-saturated wool; at this action the youths must laugh. The goat is skinned and the youths don loin-cloths made of the skin.

After a rowdy feast, each youth leads a licentious band of Luperci (clothed only in strips of goat skin) around the boundaries, where with "Juno's cloak" (other strips of goatskin) they whip bystanders (especially women, generally on their outstretched hands). In this way they obey the ancient command of Juno Lucina, Goddess of Childbirth (Ov. Fasti. II.441):

Italidas matres Sacer Hircus inito.
Let the Sacred He-goat enter Italian matrons.

Thus the Luperci are popularly called Crepi or Creppi, from Capri (He-goats). Ovid (267-302) says the Lupercalia is a rite of the Pelasgians (a people "older than the Moon"), dating from the Golden Age before the ascendancy of Jove; the naked ritual honors Pan:

The God Himself is wont to scamper high
in mountains; He Himself takes swift to flight;
the God Himself is nude, and bids His ministers
go nude, for clothes suit not a rapid race.
(Ovid, Fasti II.285-288)

In the glorious Golden Age all people went nude, living in grass houses and eating herbs, content to live on what they could gather without agriculture or husbandry. Ovid (303-58) also recounts the story of when Faunus saw Hercules and Omphale walking together, and fell in love with the maiden. The couple went to a cave to celebrate a feast for Bacchus, and traded clothes. Later Faunus entered the dark cave, where the couple had fallen asleep, and feeling the maiden's delicate robe, lay upon Hercules. Faunus was quickly thrown off and ridiculed by all present; as a consequence He has developed an aversion for clothing and demands to be worshipped in the nude! [OCD s.v. Lupercalia; OF App., pp. 389-94; SFR 76-8]

Festival for Dioscuri and/or Dei Penates (Rom., Jan. 27) (Ancient: a.d. VI. Kal. Feb.)
This festival is in honor of the Dioscuri (Gemini), who became savior Gods and were often identified with the Dei Penates. A family's Penates presided over its cupboard (penus), and their protection would be especially important during the Terror Time. The Dioscuri were treated as the Penates Publici, that is the Penates of the State. [SFC 65-8]

Festival for Pax (Rom., Jan 30) (Ancient: a.d. III Kal. Feb.)
Ovid has a nice prayer to Pax (Peace). [OF I.709-22]

Fornacalia (Rom., Feb 5 - Feb. 17) (Ancient: Non. Feb. - a.d. XIII Kal. Mar. Another movable feast.)
This is the Feast of Ovens (fornaces). The spelt is toasted in the ovens and baked in the homes into bread, which is brought to a communal meal. [SFC 73]

Sources

[BGR] Burkert, W., Greek Religion, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985.

[CDA] Cato, Marcus, De Agri Cultura, Loeb Clasical Library, Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1934.

[LEM] New Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology, New York: Crescent Books, 1987.

[NFR] Nilsson, M. P., Greek Folk Religion (orig. pub. Greek Popular Religion), New York: Harper & Row, 1940.

[OCD] Hammond, N. G. L., & Scullard, H. H. (eds.), The Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd ed., Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1970.

[OF] Ovid, Fasti, Loeb ed., tr. J. G. Frazer, Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

[OLD] Glare, P. G. W. (ed.), Oxford Latin Dictionary, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968-1982.

[PFA] Parke, H. W., Festivals of the Athenians, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1977.

[SFA] Simon, E., Festivals of Attica: An Archaeological Commentary, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983.

[SFR] Scullard, H. H., Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1981.

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Last modified: Thurs Dec 10, 1998