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yakan
"Yakan"
refers
to the majority Muslim group in Basilan, an island just south of Zamboanga
peninsula in Mindanao. The Spaniards called them Sameacas and
considered them aloof and sometimes hostile hill people (Wulff 1978:149;
Haylaya 1980:13).
Basilan Island measures 1339 sqkm,
the largest in the archipelago. Located at the northern end of the
Sulu archipelago, it is bounded in the north by Zamboanga City; in the
south by the Sulu archipelago, with Jolo as the major island; in the east
by Mindanao; and in the west by the Sulu Sea and Sabah (North Borneo).
Basilan enjoys good weather since it is located below the typhoon belt.
Abundant rainfall throughout the year keeps the soil wet and fertile (Sherfan
1976:3; Jundam 1983:3).
The island has a mountainous
terrain once covered with thick forests. There are three main
waterfalls, which provide waterpower: Kumalarang Falls, Busay Falls, and
Bulingan Waterfalls. However, this small island has not been spared
the ravages of environmental abuse. Basilan at present suffers from
water shortage because of unabated illegal logging, which according to
statistics destroys Basilan's forest reserves at the rate of 2,000 ha
annually. Forest denudation has reduced by over half the water
overflow from its watersheds, caused heavy siltation, and dried up the two
main rivers, Busay and Aguada.
Basilan is inhabited by five
ethnic groups, which were headed by the Yakan, who number around 196,000 (NCCP-PACT
1988). The other ethnic groups in order of population size are the
Chavacano, Samal, Tausug, Badjao, and Visayan (Jundam 1983:7).
The Yakan have Malay features.
They are small of frame, with brown skin, slanting eyes and black hair -
characteristics similar to the Dyak of North Borneo, leading to
speculation that they originated from this race.
They speak a language known as
Bahasa Yakan, which is a variation of the Samal Sinama or Siama and the
Tausug languages (Jundam 1983: 7-8). It is written in the Malayan
Arabic script, with adaptations to sounds not present in Arabic (Sherfan
1976).
HISTORY
Historians
have scant knowledge of the pre-Spanish history of the Yakan simply
because they have little contact with other ethnic groups. Basilan's
nearness to Borneo led to the theory that the Yakan originated from the
Dyak, but it is safe to say that Basilan's history is related to that of
the Sulu archipelago. The sultanate of Sulu became a center of power
in the 1700s, ruled over the island of Basilan nominally, and had little
influence over the Yakan who lived in the interior (Sherfan 1976:11;
Haylaya 1980:43).
Islam is said to have started in
the Philippines in 1380 but some scholars believe that Islam spread in
some areas of the archipelago during the early 1200s. Then and now,
the inhabitants of the Sulu archipelago have been described as Muslims who
have retained much of their pre-Islamic beliefs. Such folk-Islamic
culture resulted from the fact that Islamic conversions were mostly
undertaken not by full-time religious teachers but by Arab Muslim traders
who traversed the Malacca-Borneo-Sulu-Luzon-Taiwan route (Sherfan 1976:
12-13).
By the early 1700s, the Sultan of
Sulu had defeated the Sultan of Maguindanao, signaling the rise of the
Sulu sultanate in southern Philippines, with Jolo as the seat of power.
The Yakan paid a yearly tribute to the Sultan.
The Spaniards made several
attempts to control Jolo, but failed. However, Catholic missionaries
were able to penetrate Basilan. By 1654 there were about 1,000
Christian families living in the island.
By the 1840s, colonial interests
other than Spanish focused over western Mindanao, particularly the
territories under the Sulu sultanate. The British, French, Germans,
and Americans all became interested in these rich islands. In
reaction, the Spanish government in 1842 established Fort Isabela in the
northwest coast of Basilan. The area then grew into a Christian
settlement which also became a trade and commercial center.
Despite such progress in Basilan,
the Yakan remained in the interior, hostile to lowlanders. But in
the year 1842, a fugitive from Cavite named Pedro Cuevas escaped to
Basilan where he fought and killed a Yakan chieftain named Datu Kalun
(also spelled Kalung and Kalum). Cuevas then adopted the name of
Datu Kalun (Haylaya 1980:43). The Yakan accepted Cuevas as their
leader because he embraced the Yakan religion and way of life, married one
of their women, and instituted meaningful sociopolitical changes in their
lives. Datu Kalun consolidated the Yakan, led battles against the
invading rulers from Jolo, and rid Basilan of pirates and marauders.
In 1844, the French government
tried to occupy Basilan, intent on establishing a network of naval
stations to protect French trade. The inhabitants of Basilan fought
against the French for a year, resulting in a French withdrawal, as
formalized in a proclamation dated 5 August 1845. During the same
year, a US survey mission studied the potentials of the Sulu archipelago,
but American intervention did not start until 1899.
In 1895, the Sultan of Sulu sent
his bravest general, Datu Julkanayin, to regain control over Basilan, only
to be defeated by Datu Kalun's forces. The ensuing peace encouraged
more Christians to settle in Basilan. Thus, the Spaniards now
considered Cuevas/Datu Kalun an ally and pardoned him for his earlier
offense.
By this time, the Katipunan
(revolutionary organization) had been gaining momentum in Luzon. In
Mindanao, Muslim resistance contributed greatly to the weakening of
Spanish colonizers. Moreover, the Spanish campaigns against the
"Moros" - the derogatory term used by the colonialists against
the Muslim Filipinos - caused heavy casualties and depleted Spanish
resources by millions of pesos. One example is the Muslim attack on
the Spanish garrison in Jolo, which dealt a heavy blow on the Spanish
forces in Mindanao in 1897. The military attack is considered an
important anti-colonial revolutionary effort, although the Muslims
themselves did not join the Katipunan (Haylaya 1980).
While Zamboanga and Sulu were the
centers of Spanish-Muslim hostilities, Basilan inhabitants, especially the
Yakan, remained fairly unaffected by the social upheavals. Still,
the Yakan were among those natives called Moros by the Spaniards (Jundam
1983:8-9).
The arrival of the Americans in
1899 changed the situation in Mindanao. The American strategy of
integration was more acceptable to the Muslims than the Spanish strategy
of conversion. The new colonizers were received openly by the Muslim
elite. On 19 May 1899, American troops took over the Spanish
garrison in Zamboanga, one of the last strongholds of the Filipino
revolutionaries in Mindanao. By December 1899, the Americans led by
Col. James S. Petit occupied the Spanish naval base of Isabela de Basilan.
In Basilan, an old and sickly Datu Kalun (Pedro Cuevas) supported the new
colonizers.
The Philippine-American War was
raging in Luzon. So as not to spread out their forces, the Americans
employed the classic divide-and-rule tactic. Maj. Gen. E.S. Otis,
commander-in-chief of the US Forces, sent Gen. John C. Bates to negotiate
with the Sultan of Sulu. Known as the Bates treaty, the agreement
provided for the exercise of American authority over the Sulu archipelago
in exchange for the recognition of Muslim culture and religion.
The peace created by the Bates
Treaty did not last. This became evident when the Muslims repudiated
the Moro province, a politico-military government in Mindanao lasting from
1903 to 1914. It is important to note that barely two months before
the creation of the Moro province, the American colonial government
declared and classified an unoccupied Muslim and tribal ancestral lands as
public lands. Immediately after the declaration, American
investments entered Mindanao. Mass migration of Christians was
encouraged, displacing mass Muslims and tribal Filipinos from their
ancestral lands (Rodil 1985:4).
The growing Moro resistance was
manifested in the form of military attacks against American troops and
outposts. There were bitter Muslim revolts and uprisings during the
succeeding years: the Panglima Hassan uprising led by Datu Laksamana
Usap of Sulu in 1905; and the battle of Bud Dajo from 1906 to 1909.
Datu Kalun died in Basilan on 16
July 1904 at the age of 58, soon after his first contract with the
Americans. His nephew Gabino Pamaran became his successor and
adopted the name Datu Mursalun. Mursalun, also pro-American, founded
the town of Lamitan which became an American model of civil government and
development. Mursalun worked for the material progress of Basilan,
and sought ways to fight banditry and piracy in the area. During
this time, a famous pirate named Jikiri was attacking the rich Muslim,
Chinese, and American traders. He was as much a threat to American
rule as the Muslim "insurgents". Although the Yakan were
not involved in the growing ties of Jikiri, who was eventually slain by
the Americans on 2 July 1909 (Haylaya 1980).
There was a resurgence of Moro
resistance when Gen. John J. Pershing assumed governorship of the Moro
province in 1909. He ordered the complete disarmament of the Muslims
through a system of cash incentives, but most refused to sell their
weapons. Many Muslims, in fact, decided to resume the fight against
the Americans, who were then backed up by Muslim members of the Philippine
Scouts (precursor of the Philippine Constabulary). Fierce battles at
Bud Dajo and Bud Bagsak in Jolo ensued, forcing the Americans and local
counterinsurgency forces to employ the most brutal military tactics
against the Muslims. A majority of the victims were women and
children, for which Pershing received severe criticism.
Alongside military suppression
came a policy of education. Public schools were built but Muslim
enrollment was way below Christian school attendance. Muslims
considered education a threat to their culture and religion.
To ensure Muslim participation in
government affairs, the Americans soon adopted a Policy of Attraction for
western Mindanao. Moreover, the Philippine Constabulary (PC)
replaced the United States Army units pursuant to colonial efforts to
reduce American presence. The replacement of American troops, mostly
by Christians under the PC, increased the hostility between Muslims and
Christians.
In the political sphere, the
management of Muslim affairs through the organization of the Department of
Mindanao and Sulu in 1914 was unsuccessful, as leadership in the
department fell in the hands of Christians. Thus, the Muslim leaders
were historically opposed to the idea of independence, which meant the
incorporation of Muslim areas into a political system dominated by
Christians. Their fears were not base-less. As demonstrated by
the Commonwealth government, Pres. Quezon and other Christian political
leaders failed to incorporate the development of Mindanao and Sulu into
the national development plan.
The outbreak of WWII disrupted
Commonwealth operations. Christians and Muslim officers and men of
the military district in Mindanao and Sulu shifted to guerilla activities
against the Japanese. A civil government called Free Sulu Government
administered was activities in the locality. The Japanese Occupation
forces established a government in Basilan to govern both Zamboanga and
Basilan. The Japanese Occupation of Basilan was rather uneventful;
it barely disturbed Yakan society, except in terms of Japanese demand for
food for their military machinery. In fact, Datu Mursalun and his
family watched, without much interest, the American bombings of the
Spanish fort and naval hospital in Isabela which signaled the retaking of
Basilan by the American troops in 1945.
During the next two decades,
Muslim and Christian relations deteriorated and culminated into a civil
war in 1970 with the formal organization of the Moro National Liberation
Front (MNLF), with the Bangsa Moro Army (BMA) as its military arm.
The MNLF would separate the Bangsa Moro homeland of Mindanao, Sulu,
Basilan, and Palawan from the rest of the Philippines (Rodil 1985:5).
Fighting between the government
and the MNLF-BMA escalated during the declaration of Martial Law in 1972.
By 1974 MNLF strength rose to some 30,000 armed combatants. It
gained political control over significant areas of western Mindanao and
the Sulu archipelago including Basilan. The MNLF gained
international Muslim support through the Islamic conference which
facilitated negotiations between the Marcos government and the MNLF in
1976. In December 1976, the Tripoli Agreement was signed, providing
for the granting of local autonomy for 13 Muslim-populated provinces;
however, it was never fully implemented by the Marcos government.
Differences within the Moro camp regarding the Tripoli Agreement split the
MNLF into three factions (Noble 1987:194).
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RELIGIOUS
BELIEFS AND PRACTICES
"Folk
Islam" - a combination of Islamic principles and traditional beliefs
-- best describes the Yakan belief system. The belief in
saytan, the various spirits in heaven and in the natural environment,
indicates the lingering influence of pre-Islamic religious beliefs.
Yakan pre-Islamic practices are also combined with Islamic rituals, for
example, in the planting rituals, death rituals, spirit worship, and
ancestral offerings. As Muslims, the Yakan believe in the five
pillars of Islam: the sahada, which says that there is no other God but
Allah and that Muhammad is his prophet; the salat or prayer; puasse or
fasting during the month of Ramadan; pitla or charity to the poor; zacat
or tithes to Muslim religious leaders; and the maghadji or pilgrimage to
the holy city of Mecca.
For the Muslim Yakan, the world
is divided into two: Dar-ul-Islam, the abode of Islam, and Dar-ul-Harb,
the abode of the unbelievers. Jihad is the holy war waged by Muslims
to protect Dar-ul-Islam from foreign invasion and against those who seek
to harm their religion, people, and properties. Magsabil (jurementado
in Spanish) is a small-scale jihad aimed at protecting personal property
and family. The magsabil kills anybody who comes his way, exposing
himself to death by reprisal. The belief is that whoever kills more
during the magsabil will have more servants in heaven. But unless
the act is justifiable and the person is a firm believer of Islam, the
magsabil will not go to heaven. Every believer has a strong faith in
Allah, in his Messenger, and angels, and in the judgement day and destiny
(Jundam 1983:5, 38, 40; Sherfan 1976:118-125).
Heaven for the Yakan is a place
where the soul can find happiness, joy, and peace. Heaven has eight
classes and the eight is God's dimension, which cannot be reached unless
one works hard for it on earth (Sherfan 1976).
When one dies, the soul goes to
ahirat (judgement place) where it awaits the verdict - to go to heaven or
to hell (Sherfan 1976:142). Good deeds on earth will be rewarded on
judgement day. Every sin done on earth has its own corresponding
place in narka or hell. This is where adulterers, murderers, and
prostitutes go, unless they are saved by belief in the Quran and in
Muhammad. Even religious leaders are not exempt from punishment in
hell if they have sinned on earth (Jundam 1983:41).
The Quran is the divine
revelation of Allah addressed to all people regardless of belief or race.
Islamic doctrines are learned through the madrasa schools or merely by
listening to the khutba or sermon during Friday prayer. Male
believers are required to attend Friday prayers while women may not be as
religious in their attendance. Women who attend the prayers are
separated from the males and, except for their faces, are fully covered.
Only a few Yakan, however, observe the five-times-a-day daily prayer.
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VISUAL
ARTS AND CRAFTS
The
Yakan have designs or motifs used repeatedly in all their visual arts and
crafts. The pussuk labbung is a sawtooth design used for cloth
baskets and the native sword called kris. The bunga sama, used for
table runners, monuments for the dead and on trunks, is a symmetrical
design made of rectangular-shaped figures. The kabban buddi is a set
of triangles, squares, and other geometric shapes used for cushions,
pillows, casings, mats, and hats. The baggang kettan combines
incised triangles and rectangles, and is used to decorate the kris.
The ukil lagbas consists of a combination of various lines - wavy,
crossed-wavy, and straight - used on shirts, windows of houses, and boats
(Sherfan 1976:210-211).
Weapons such as knives and swords
are part of the Yakan's visual arts. The punnyal is a small knife,
which can be hidden within one's clothing. The barong is carried
with pride since it is a symbol of strength and is also acceptable as
bride wealth. The taming is the traditional shield used along with
two types of spears, the budjak and the sankil, now used only in war
dances. The bangkung is another type of bolo seldom used nowadays.
The pira is a traditional weapon used by little boys when going on a long
journey. The barong and the kris, although popular, are less
valuable or admired among the Yakan (Sherfan 1976:156-160).
Yakan visual arts includes Yakan
kitchen utensils and household implements. Metal ware includes the
talam, a beautifully decorated bronze tray, and the sanduk or ladle used
for special occasions. Yakan basketry is both colorful and
functional. The tutop is a food cover made of bamboo leaves.
The peliyuk is a clay jar with cover used for cooking. The baling is
a decorative clay jar treasured as heirloom. The kombo is a lidded
container for rice storage. A lakal is a bamboo frame used to hold
the cooking gadget when placed on the ground. The tempipih is a big
basket carried on the back. A conical basket called the saan is used
as a liquid strainer.
Baskets are also used to measure
and weigh. The gantang is bigger than the government ganta.
The batil measures nine gantang. The laga is 10 gantang. The
ilug is 30 gantang. The lukung is equivalent to 100 gantang.
An example of Yakan pottery is the poga, a covered clay jar used as water
container (Sherfan 1976:201-204).
Yakan women are excellent
weavers, and are famous for their beautifully woven traditional costumes
of cotton and pineapple cloth. The basic garment for men and women
consists of a tight-fitting upper garment with tight-fitting trousers
called sawal. The shirt is open in front from lapel down to the
waist, using up to 40 sequined or golden buttons. To close the
shirt, a long string is crisscrossed from one button to the other so that
when tightly drawn, the shirt closes from top to bottom. Usually the
shirt remains open since the string is often lost. Over the shirt,
male and female wear a tight-fitting jacket, which is exquisitely
embroidered in the front and back, with cuffs decorated with multicolored
sequins.
The difference in male and female
apparel lies in accessories. Men wear a hand woven pis (head cloth)
and a 15m-long kandit (belt or sash) made of red cloth called gilim.
The pis serves as "protection" from spears and knives during
combat, and may be fastened around the trousers. The women wear a
short skirt over the trousers, around which a rectangular, hand woven
cloth is tied. This cloth is the most expensive part of their
costume because it is woven in a tedious manner. Men and women wear
the saruk, the Yakan hat worn to make one look more attractive and
elegant. Some wear the hat over the turban and use it as a purse for
betel nuts, tobacco, and money. Yakan warriors wear a bullet proof
shirt prepared by hadjis and imams who write Arabic script all-over the
shirt (Sherfan 1976:160, 205-207).
Ornaments such as necklaces may
be worn as charms. A crocodile tooth polished with a hole at the
base is believed to bring good luck when worn as a necklace. The
Yakan also wear amulets against bullets. These contain unreadable
symbols, are wrapped in black cloth, sewn in triangular form, and tied
around the neck. Belts made of snake bones are strung together to
protect them against bodily pain. One charm that protects them from
sicknesses due to evil spirits is the manik tegiyas - a necklace or
bracelet made of the fruits of a flower beaded together. The manik
sembulan is made of a bamboo stem cut into short pieces, strung together
either as a necklace or bracelet, and serving as added protection against
sickness inflicted by evil spirits. To gain more strength against
evil spirits, men and women wear the anting-anting. This consists of
a string with a piece of cloth containing beads as pendant (Sherfan
1976:143-147).
The Yakan also wear functional
gadgets. The pegupaan is a bamboo container for all the
paraphernalia for chewing betel nut. The lutuan, a small bronze box
with engravings carried at the waist, has a similar function (Sherfan
1976:203).
A unique form of visual arts is
the facial make-up done on brides and grooms. After creating a
foundation of white powder, the make-up artists proceed to paint dots and
lines in various patterns on the faces, creating the effect of formal and
elaborate masks which match the ornate costumes of the celebrants.
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PERFORMING
ARTS
The
Yakan have a rich musical tradition, which may be broadly divided into
instrumental and vocal. Yakan musical instruments are made of
bamboo, wood, and metal. Their musical instruments also demonstrate
the influence of the traditional cycle of rice production in their lives.
Several instruments are used in each stage of rice production. The
daluppak is a digging stick with a bamboo clapper. The kopak-kopak
is a bamboo clapper on a stick. The kulintangan (kwintangan) kayu is
percussion instrument consisting of wooden beams laid after the planting
season, to enhance plant growth. The wooden tuntungan is a
percussion plank with jar resonators, also played during the harvest
season for thanksgiving.
The gabbang is a bamboo split
into five, and arranged like a xylophone. Small children near the
fields played it in order to guard the crops against prying animals.
The kwintangan batakan is an earlier form of gabbang which has six, seven,
or nine bamboo pieces. The suling is a bamboo mouth flute used by
the men in courting women. Another bamboo instrument used by the men
in expressing love or admiration is the kulaing. The kulintangan or
kwintangan consists of several bronze gongs arranged according to size,
and used during celebrations such as weddings and graduations. Any
individual played it in the home and after work, for self-expression and
relaxation. The agong is a percussion instrument used to announce
marriage or for tolling the dead. The jabujabu (djabu-djabu) is a
type of drum that summons the people to prayer (Nicolas 1977: 100-108;
Sherfan 1976:195-199).
There are three main types of
Yakan vocal music: the lugu and other melodies used in reading the Quran
and other religious books; the kalangan or songs which maybe further
reclassified into Jamiluddin and Lunsey; and the katakata, nahana, yaya,
lembukayu, and sa-il, among others. The kalangan, jamiluddin,
katakata, nahana, and yaya are sung solo, while the lunsey, sa-il,
meglubulebu seputangen, and lembukayu involves singers from two groups
singing solo as they answer each other.
The kalangan, jamiluddin, lunsey,
and lembukayu are courting songs. The katakata, jamiluddin, and
nahana may also narrate the history of the Yakan people. The
katakata is a long traditional song narrating the lives, loves, and
historical backgrounds of people who lived during early times. The
Yakan believed that such stories originated from people who lived in
another world. The katakata is sung only at night, at a big
gathering with food served by the host or hostess. The singing, in
episodes, may last for several nights. The singer lies on a mat, the
back supported by several pillows. The audience, either sit or lie
around the singer. The jamiluddin relates love stories. At
present, it is also sung when families discuss marriage engagements.
Both the katakata and jamiluddin are sung by wise men and women of the
tribe.
The sa-il and lunsey are sung
during a wedding ceremony, with messages revolving around good advice
regarding married life. Another type of sa-il is sung during the
magtammat or Quranic graduation.
During social gatherings, the
maglebu-lebu seputangan is sung, by a group of men answering a group of
women. Each group has a soloist who sings the kalangan, expressed in
metaphors.
The yaya is a lullaby. The
magsambag is a method of studying the Quran in which a mulid or student
follows the Quranic singing of the teacher. The student and teacher
are not allowed to sing together.
Then there are the songs, which
the Yakan sing during daily activities. In keeping watch over rice
fields, they sing some forms of the jamiluddin and kalangan. While
resting at home, they also leisurely sing the katakata, jamiluddin, and
nahana. Children at play imitate the adults in singing the kalangan,
jamiluddin, lembukayu, and lugu (Nicolas 1977:97-100).
One popular Yakan dance adopted
from the Tausogs pangalay is called mangalay. The dance is
accompanied by the kunlintangan kayu and played by three people. In
the Yakan "bumblebee" mimetic dance usually performed by a male
dancer, a searcher successfully finds honey with the aid of a torch.
He overeats, and the result is a stomachache (Orosa-Goquingco 1980:175).
Another example of a mimetic dance is the tahing baila, which imitates the
movement of a fish (Tiongson 1991:236). At weddings, the tumahik or
war dance is to be performed by the groom as well as male relatives of
both the groom and the bride. Dressed in Yakan finery, the dancer
uses a spear and a shield to fight an imaginary enemy to the music of the
kulintangan. - R. Matilac
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