Chapter Ten
Decline and Renaissance
During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, plague, war, and economic de=
cline weakened medieval Europe. Governments had difficulty keeping law and o=
rder. Monarchs lost much of their power to nobles. Church leaders were openl=
y criticized for preferring secular -to religious goals. Conflicts among soc=
ial groups led to rebellion and civil war. At times, it seemed that Europe w=
as falling apart.
In spite of the crises, Europe did not collapse. The failure of medieval id=
eas and institutions forced Europeans to rebuild their civilization. From ab=
out 1350 to 1600, western Europe experienced a profound cultural awakening k=
nown as the Renaissance.' Due to the Renaissance, educated Europeans develop=
ed new attitudes about themselves and the world around them. Although still =
Christian, they became less concerned with their destiny in heaven and more =
interested in improving their lives on earth. The changes brought by the Ren=
aissance signaled the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the modern=
period.
Medieval Decline
About 1300 medieval Europe entered a period of economic depression, or decl=
ine. Production in the towns slowed. Rains and floods caused poor harvests, =
and widespread famines occurred. During this time, known as the Late Middle =
Ages, Europeans lost much of their security, optimism, and self-confidence. =
Black Death
Terrible outbreaks of plague heightened Europe's economic crisis. During th=
e mid-1300's, a deadly disease known as the Black Death swept through Europe=
, killing about one-fourth of the population. Most deaths occurred in crowde=
d and unsanitary towns and cities. Some of the horror of the Black Death can=
be seen in this account by a priest who visited the French city of Avignon =
in 1348:
One-half=
or more ... of the people at Avignon are already dead. Within the &nb=
sp; walls of the =
city there are now more than 7000 houses shut up; in these no &n=
bsp; one is living, and=
all who have inhabited them are departed; the suburbs &nb=
sp; hardly contain any people=
at all ... On account of this great mortality there =
; is such fear of death that =
people do not dare even to speak with anyone &=
nbsp; whose relative has died, because it=
is frequently remarked that in a family =
; where one dies nearly all the relations=
follow him, and this is commonly =
believed among the people.*
Doctors could not cure the disease, which further increased public panic. S=
eeking protection, townspeople fled to isolated rural areas. The decline and=
shift of population temporarily halted farming production and trade in many=
areas. Repeated, though less severe, outbreaks of plague occurred for the n=
ext 50 years.
Social Upheaval
The plague and the economic troubles weakened Europes monarchies. Taxes bro=
ught in less revenue, and rulers could not meet their expenses. To raise the=
ir income, they fought wars and conquered more productive lands. They sold g=
overnment positions and titles of
nobility to the highest bidders. Such practices lead to an increase in gove=
rnment corruption. Many Europeans lost faith in their rulers. Social groups =
began to fight for political power.
Nobles
Nobles often took part in these upheavals. As monarchie=
s weakened, they worked to get back their old feudal privileges. Some exerte=
d their influence through assemblies and the royal courts. Others formed the=
ir own armies and fought for control of government. However, once in power, =
nobles seldom worked together and split into quarreling groups.
Townspeople
Wealthy merchants and artisans in the towns also tried =
to increase their influence. Certain groups of them won control of town gove=
rnments. While in power, they limited the political rights of poorer urban d=
wellers. They gained control of the guilds and increased their hold over tow=
n economies. Strict regulations were passed that made it difficult for journ=
eymen to become masters. Enterprising artisans were discouraged from develop=
ing new methods of production. As a result, many competing producers and art=
isans left the towns and set up new trades in the countryside. There, they c=
ould work and ignore guild restrictions. Peasants and Workers Despite the ec=
onomic slump, the living conditions of peasants and workers generally improv=
ed. After the Black Death, there were fewer laborers to till the fields and =
work in the shops. Knowing that their skills were needed, peasants and worke=
rs demanded and won benefits from their employers. They received higher wage=
s, paid lower taxes and rents, and secured the right to move from one place =
to another. Also, many of the remaining serfs gained their freedom.
These changes increased the economic burdens on the upper social groups. Th=
e groups gradually began to take back many of the gains that the peasants an=
d workers had won. At the urging of nobles and merchants, governments passed=
laws to limit wage increases, raise taxes, and prevent the movement of work=
ers to new jobs and places.
Uprisings
As a result of these setbacks, peasants and workers bec=
ame restless and unhappy. During the late 1300s, rebellions
occurred in many areas. Peasants killed landlords, burned tax records, and =
demanded an end to heavy taxes and other payments. Workers in the towns aske=
d for the right to participate in town government and to form their own guil=
ds. They often rioted when their demands were rejected. In spite of their de=
termination, peasants and workers lacked weapons and were poorly trained in =
warfare. Thus, nobles and wealthy townspeople were able to crush the revolts=
.
Results
Although the uprisings failed, they had two important r=
esults. First, peasants and workers regained some of their benefits. In west=
ern Europe, serfs as a group virtually disappeared. As free laborers, they e=
ither moved to the towns or became tenant farmers who paid rent to their for=
mer lords for use of the land. Second, the fear of social turmoil brought to=
wnspeople and the gentry, or lower nobility, closer together. Both of these =
groups now recognized that strong monarchs were needed to maintain order and=
to promote economic recovery and growth.
Hundred Years' War
During the 1300's, feudal disputes often led to wars among Europe's monarch=
s. The most devastating and prolonged of these conflicts was the Hundred Yea=
rs' War, fought by the kings of France and England.
Causes
In the early 1300's, France and England were bitter ene=
mies despite close cultural and political ties. French kings wanted to annex=
, or take over, lands in southern France that the English king held as a vas=
sal of the French crown. At the same time, a growing rivalry developed betwe=
en England and France over Flanders, which was prized for its profitable mar=
kets. In 1337 the feud grew worse when Edward III of England declared himsel=
f king of France. Philip VI of France then demanded that Edward III pay him =
homage for the English lands in France. Edward III refused and prepared for =
war. Two years later, he landed his armies in northern France.
Battles
The English won the most important b=
attles of the Hundred Years' War. They
defeated the French at Crecy in 1346 and again at Agincourt in 1415. Severa=
l factors were responsible for these victories.
First, the English as a people were more united than the French. English ki=
ngs appealed to national unity and received financial support from Parliamen=
t to fight the war. Second, the English armies developed new tactics. For th=
e first time, foot soldiers fought alongside mounted knights in heavy armor.=
The foot soldiers used the longbow, a new weapon that was five or SIN feet =
(1.5 or 1.8 meters) long and could send steel-tipped arrows a distance of 40=
0 yards (360 meters). In battle, the longbow could send deadly showers of ar=
rows into the air that blocked the advance of mounted French knights.
English forces also experimented with gun powder. They developed the first =
portable firearms used in European warfare. The earliest gun consisted of a =
long tube mounted on a pole; the charge was set off by a match. From models =
of these guns, cannons were later produced. By the end of the Hundred Years'=
War, cannons had become important weapons in offensive warfare. Their blast=
s were capable of destroying stone walls. As a result, castles and fortified=
towns could be easily taken.
Joan of Arc
By 1420 England controlled two-fifths of French soil. T=
hey carried on the war from the unconquered southern part of France. French =
hopes for victory were raised when a teenage peasant girl named Joan of Arc =
appeared before King Charles VII. Joan told the king that heavenly voices ha=
d called her to save France. With Charles's support, she led a French army t=
o victory at Orleans, a town that had been placed under siege by the English=
. Soon after her triumph, Joan fell into English hands and was burned as a w=
itch. However, her courage and devotion had a powerful effect on the French =
people. They rallied to their king and gradually drove the English out of th=
eir country. When the war finally ended in 1453, the port of Calais was the =
only French territory still under English rule - Effects The Hundred Years' =
War profoundly affected the peoples of England and France. France had suffer=
ed more severely than England, since all of the fighting had occurred on Fre=
nch soil. Victory gave the French people a new sense of unity that enabled t=
hem to rebuild their country. England had been spared the destruction of its=
towns and countryside. Yet, defeat led to much bitterness among the nobles =
who had owned lands in France. For the rest of the 1400's, England was torn =
apart by social conflict. However, in the long run, the loss of French lands=
contributed to national unity. The English eventually abandoned permanent c=
laims on the European mainland.
Decline of Feudalism
Since the 1200's, feudalism had been weakened by the growth of towns, the d=
evelopment of a money economy, and the rise of a free labor force. However, =
the new methods of warfare that emerged during the Hundred Years' War brough=
t about feudalism's collapse. The use of the longbow and firearms made feuda=
l methods of fighting based on castles and mounted knights obsolete. Thus, m=
onarchs relied less on feudal soldiers. Instead they formed national armies =
made up of mercenaries and commoners, or non-nobles.
Maintaining these armies, however, was expensive. Monarchs had to look for =
new sources of revenue. They turned to the richest members of their realms-t=
he townspeople and the gentry. These groups willingly paid taxes and made lo=
ans to monarchs in return for security and good government.
The Troubled Church
During the upheavals of the Late Middle Ages, many people turned to the Chu=
rch for comfort and reassurance. Religious ceremonies multiplied, and thousa=
nds of people went on pilgrimages to the shrines of saints. In spite of this=
increase in religious devotion, the Church was unable to remedy the ills of=
western Europe. In fact, it was troubled by the same disunity that affected=
society at large.
Babylonian Captivity
During the early 1300's, the papacy came under the infl=
uence of the French monarchy. In 1309 a French archbishop was elected Pope C=
lement V. Clement refused to live in Rome because of civil wars that were di=
srupting Italy. He established his court in Avignon, a small city in souther=
n France. There, Clement and his successors remained until 1377.
This long period of exile is known as the Babylonian Captivity, after the e=
xile of the Jews to Babylon in the 500's B.C. During the Avignon period, the=
popes worked to improve their administration and to increase church taxes. =
In the process, they lost much of their moral prestige. Some Europeans belie=
ved that the popes had shamefully abandoned Rome, which they felt was the tr=
ue center of the Church. Others disliked the concern of the Avignon
Popes for money and efficiency. They believed that the popes had become cor=
rupted by worldly power and were neglecting their spiritual duties.
Great Schism
Finally, in 1377, Pope Gregory XI left Avignon and retu=
rned to Italy. Once
again, Rome became the center of the Catholic Church. After Gregorys death =
a year later Roman mobs forced the College of Cardinals to elect an Italian =
as Pope. The cardinals later declared the election invalid, claiming that th=
ey had voted under pressure. They elected a new Pope, who settled in Avignon=
. The Italian Pope, however, refused to resign. As a result, the Church face=
d the dilemma of having two popes at the same time. One Pope excommunicated =
the other, and each set up his own College of Cardinals and central administ=
ration. When the popes died, in 1389 and 1394, each College elected a new Po=
pe.
This controversy became known as the Great Schism, because it caused seriou=
s divisions in the Church. The Great Schism lasted for 40 years. During this=
time, Europe's secular rulers decided which Pope their people would follow.=
Rulers in France, Spain, and Scotland backed the Pope at Avignon, while tho=
se in England, Italy, Germany, and Scandinavia supported the Pope at Rome. <=
BR>
In 1409, a council met at Pisa, Italy, to unite the Church behind one Pope.=
It resulted in the election of a third Pope, since neither the Pope at Rome=
nor the Pope at Avignon would resign. Finally, in 1415, another council met=
at Constance, Switzerland. It forced the resignation of all three popes. It=
then elected a new Pope, Martin V, who won the support of all sides.
Results With the election of Pope Martin V, the Great Schism ended. The lon=
g period of division had seriously weakened the organization and moral influ=
ence of the Church. At the same time, the secular power of the papacy had de=
clined. By 1400 many Europeans felt a greater sense of loyalty to their mona=
rchs than to the Pope. Also, monarchs for the first time were willing to use=
military force to make church leaders accept royal commands. Due to these p=
ressures, the papacy had to accept limits on its political authority within =
each of Europe's kingdoms.
The Revival of Monarchy
During the 1400's, Europe's monarchs set up stronger central governments. T=
hey won the loyalty of their people and began to limit the political influen=
ce of the clergy and the nobles. Nobles and church leaders continued to serv=
e in government posts. But monarchs increasingly appointed educated commoner=
s and members of the laity as their closest advisers. These officials, with =
their legal and record-keeping skills, headed new government institutions th=
at enforced royal authority.
France
During the Hundred Years' War, the French monarchy gained much power and pr=
estige. In the 1440's, Charles VII began imposing taxes with the approval of=
the Estates-General. He
created a standing, or permanent, army under his direct control.
Charles VII's son Louis XI continued to increase the monarchy's power. Afte=
r becoming king in 1461, Louis set out to unite all the feudal territories i=
n France under the French crown. He especially wanted Burgundy, which includ=
ed parts of what is now eastern France, western Germany, and the Low Countri=
es. Burgundy was one of the most prosperous areas of Europe. Its ruler, Duke=
Charles the Bold, had a magnificent court that attracted scholars, musician=
s, and painters from all parts of Europe. Proud of his territory's accomplis=
hments, Charles wanted to break ties with France and make Burgundy an indepe=
ndent state.
Rather than fight Charles openly, Louis XI encouraged quarrels between Burg=
undy and the neighboring Swiss. In 1477 Charles fought the Swiss and was kil=
led in battle. Burgundy was then divided into two parts. The northern half, =
the Netherlands, went to Charles's daughter Mary. The rest became a part of =
France. After this victory, Louis and his successors won the allegiance of t=
he French nobles. Through treaties and marriages, they were able to acquire =
the remaining feudal lands.
Louis XI worked to create a French government in which the king had supreme=
power. He strengthened the bureaucracy, kept a firm hold over the nobles, a=
nd promoted trade and agriculture. Louis XI's efforts helped make the monarc=
hy the most powerful institution in France.
England
Like France, England developed a tradition of strong royal government. Howe=
ver, because of the Hundred Years' War, the monarch's power was limited by P=
arliament. Parliament won the right to levy new taxes, approve new laws, and=
advise the monarch on important policies.
The monarchy's authority was further eroded as a result of a change in dyna=
sty. In 1399 King Richard II was deposed by a noble, Henry of Lancaster, who=
became Henry IV. Because he had seized the throne, Henry was not widely res=
pected as a ruler. His weak position forced him to rely on Parliament. Henry=
also had difficulty controlling feuds among influential noble families.
In 1477 a struggle began among the nobles for control of the English throne=
. Soon England was plunged into a series of battles between the royal house =
of Lancaster and its rival, the house of York. The conflict lasted until 148=
5 and became known as the Wars of the Roses.
During the Wars of the Roses, Edward, duke of York, overthrew the weak Lanc=
aster dynasty. He became King Edward IV and founded the dynasty of York. As =
king, Edward worked to strengthen royal government and to promote trade. Fig=
hting still continued among rival groups of nobles. Before peace could be wo=
n, Edward died in 1483. His death brought more uncertainty to England. The h=
eirs to the throne were the late king's two young sons. Edward's brother Ric=
hard, however, wanted to be king. He proclaimed himself Richard III and lock=
ed his young nephews in the Tower of London. Some historians believe that Ri=
chard had the boys Murdered.
Because of his questionable title to the throne, Richard III faced much opp=
osition. The last phase of the Wars of the Roses began when Henry Tudor, a L=
ancaster noble, laid claim to the crown. Henry raised an army and defeated R=
ichard and his supporters at the Battle of Bosworth Field. He then became Ki=
ng Henry VII and founded the Tudor dynasty, which ruled England until 1603. =
Henry VII acted to win the loyalty of his people. As a sign of his desire f=
or national unity, he married Elizabeth, the daughter of one of the defeated=
nobles of York. Henry's hold on the throne was also strengthened because of=
the decline of the English nobility. Many nobles had died during the Hundre=
d Years' War and the Wars of the Roses. Few of them were now left to challen=
ge the Tudor dynasty. Under Henry VII, the English monarchy became strong on=
ce again. Still, Henry did not enjoy supreme power. He was careful to gain t=
he approval of Parliament in making laws.
Spain
During the late 1400's, Spain emerged as an important European power. Befor=
e this time, it had gone through a long period of turmoil and warfare. From =
1000 to 1200 the Christian kingdoms of northern Spain had captured most of t=
he country from the Moors. After these military campaigns known as the Recon=
quista, or "the Reconquest," Spain consisted of three Christian ki=
ngdoms: Portugal in the west, Castile in the center, and Aragon on the Medit=
erranean coast. Only the principality of Granada in the south remained Musli=
m. Portugal became a separate kingdom, but Castile and Aragon eventually uni=
ted.
The power of monarchs in Castile and Aragon, however, was limited by local =
interests and large religious minority groups. During the Reconquista, monar=
chs had recruited Christian settlers for the territories they reconquered. T=
hey gave these settlers land under favorable terms as well as rights of loca=
l government. Large communities of Jews and Muslims lived in Castile and Ara=
gon. They had their own laws and elected their own officials. Towns in both =
kingdoms had fueros, or special royal charters, that allowed them to keep th=
eir courts and local customs. Above all, the monarchs of Castile and Aragon =
had to gain approval for their policies from representative assemblies known=
as cortes.
National Unity
In 1469 Prince Ferdinand of Aragon married Princess Isa=
bella of Castile. Within ten years, they became king and queen and establish=
ed a national monarchy in Spain. However, Castile and Aragon maintained sepa=
rate bureaucracies. In Castile, the two monarchs strengthened the powers of =
the crown and reduced local privileges. They sent officials known as corregi=
dores to govern the towns and set up special courts in the countryside to en=
force royal justice. Ferdinand and Isabella also worked to extend their powe=
r over all of Spain. In 1492 their armies forced the surrender of the last M=
oorish stronghold at Granada.
Shortly after the conquest of Granada, Ferdinand and Isabella ended the tra=
ditional policy of toleration for minority groups. They believed that all Sp=
aniards had to be Catholic if Spain was to become truly one nation. In 1492 =
Spanish Jews were ordered either to become Catholics or to leave Spain. Ten =
years later the Moors were given the same choice. The departure of many Jews=
and Moors weakened Spain's economic and intellectual life. Most of the coun=
try's important bankers, merchants, and educators were either Jews or Moors.=
After these groups left, there were few trained Spaniards to take their pla=
ce.
Inquisition
To help them unite Spain under Catholicism, Ferdinand a=
nd Isabella set up the Spanish Inquisition, a court that enforced Catholic t=
eachings. The Inquisition believed that Jews and Moors who had converted to =
Catholicism still practiced their old religions in secret. It tortured, trie=
d, and punished anyone suspected of heresy. The fear that the Inquisition cr=
eated further strengthened the power of the Spanish monarchs over their peop=
le. However, it limited Spanish contacts with other parts of Europe.
Holy Roman Empire
During the 1300's, the Holy Roman Empire was the largest political unit in =
Europe. It included mostly German and Slav territories in the central part o=
f the continent. The Holy Roman Empire was far from achieving national unity=
under a strong monarchy. While most European monarchs acquired their throne=
s through hereditary succession, the Holy Roman Emperor was elected to offic=
e by a German diet, or assembly of German princes. The princes governed thei=
r local territories as independent rulers. They had the right to accept or r=
eject the emperor's requests for taxes and soldiers.
In the early 1300's, the diet named members of the Luxemburg family to the =
imperial throne. Under the Luxemburg emperor, Charles IV, the empire enjoyed=
a brief period of stability and prosperity. Before becoming Holy Roman Empe=
ror, Charles IV had been king of Bohemia, an area that is now part of Czecho=
slovakia. As emperor, he made Bohemia's capital, Prague, the leading city of=
the empire and one of the great cultural centers of Europe.
In spite of his overall success as a ruler, Charles IV made one decision th=
at further weakened the imperial throne. In 1356 he issued a decree that lim=
ited the number of princes taking part in imperial elections to seven. After=
Charles IV's death, Holy Roman Emperors were largely dependent on these sev=
en electors. Whenever an emperor died, the electors avoided giving the thron=
e to any powerful prince. They regularly chose as emperor only politically w=
eak nobles with small landholdings.
In the early 1400's, the Hapsburgs, a family of nobles from Austria, gained=
control of most of the votes in imperial elections. After 1438, a Hapsburg =
prince was almost always chosen Holy Roman Emperor. Once in power, Hapsburg =
emperors could not control the German princes and unify the empire. However,=
they were able to increase their family's prestige by securing other areas =
of Europe.
One of the most ambitious Hapsburg emperors was Maximilian I. Elected emper=
or in 1493, Maximilian married Mary of Burgundy and acquired the Low Countri=
es as part of the Hapsburg inheritance. He later married his children into p=
owerful European royal families. Maximilian I's grandson Charles, born in 15=
00, eventually became king of Spain. In 1519 the
German princes elected him Holy Roman Emperor as Charles V. Under Charles, =
the Hapsburgs became the most powerful European royal family. Their domains =
included Spain, Austria, Germany, the Low Countries, and Italy.
East Central Europe
The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries saw the rise of kingdoms in East Cen=
tral Europe, the region between Germany and Russia. The largest and most pow=
erful territories of this region were Poland and Hungary.
Poland
Formed about 900 by West Slavs, Poland had accepted Rom=
an Catholicism and established close ties with western Europe. From about 10=
00 to 1300, it went through periods of disunity and warfare. During this tim=
e, groups of German knights known as the Teutonic Knights took advantage of =
Poland's difficulties. They expanded eastward and conquered areas of Poland =
along the Baltic Sea. There, they created farms and founded seaports. Poland=
profited from the Baltic Sea trade established by German merchants. It soon=
began to export timber and grain to western Europe.
Many Poles resented German control over parts of their land. They put aside=
their differences and began to unite. King Casimir III, who ruled Poland fr=
om 1333 to 1370, reduced the power of the nobles and formed a strong central=
government. He also provided shelter to thousands of Jews fleeing persecuti=
on in England and France. As a result, Poland had one of Europe's largest Je=
wish communities by the end of the Middle Ages.
In 1386 Queen Jadwiga, Casimir's successor, married Wadyslaw Jagiello, the =
duke of the neighboring territory of Lithuania. Their marriage led to a unio=
n of Poland and Lithuania, creating one of the larger states of Europe. With=
this added strength, Poland was able to confront the Germans. In 1410 Polis=
h and Lithuanian forces under Jagiello defeated the Teutonic Knights at the =
Battle of Tannenburg. This victory halted and eventually reversed German exp=
ansion into Poland.
Hungary
To the south of Poland was the kingdom of Hungary. It w=
as made up of different
peoples-Magyars, Germans, Romanians, and Slavs. In the year 1000, King Step=
hen I became a Roman Catholic and introduced his people to western European =
ways. His family, the Arpads, ruled Hungary until 1301. At that time, the An=
jou family from southern Italy took over the Hungarian throne. The greatest =
of the Anjou rulers was Louis 1, who ruled from 1302 to 1308. Louis strength=
ened the monarchy and encouraged the growth of towns and trade.
After Louis I's death in 1308, Hungary was governed by weak kings, who gave=
away much of their power to the nobles. In the 1400's the Ottoman Turks exp=
anded into Europe and threatened Hungarian territory. John Hunyadi, a Romani=
an noble, led the Hungarians in holding back the Ottoman forces. His son Mat=
thias Corvinus became king of Hungary in 1458.
Matthias was a strong ruler who set up a government bureaucracy, encouraged=
learning, and established a standing army. During his reign, Hungary became=
the most powerful state in central Europe.
After the death of Corvinus in 1490, the Hungarian monarchy again weakened,=
and the nobles assumed power. At the same time, the Ottomans resumed their =
attacks. In 1526 Louis II of Hungary was defeated by the Ottoman ruler Sulei=
man I at the Battle of Mohacs. After this battle most of the country was occ=
upied by Ottoman armies; the remaining part came under the control of the Ha=
psburg emperors.
Scandinavia
During the Late Middle Ages, the Viking kingdoms of Scandinavia-Norway, Swe=
den, and Denmark-became united nations. After the eleventh century, the Viki=
ngs followed a more settled lifestyle in their homelands. They accepted Chri=
stianity, developed writing systems based on the Latin alphabet, and promote=
d trade around the Baltic Sea and the North Atlantic. Trade rivalries and bo=
undary disputes led to frequent wars among the Scandinavian nations. Soon a =
group of northern German trading cities known as the Hanseatic League acquir=
ed control of the Baltic trade and began to intervene in Scandinavian affair=
s.
Wanting to throw off German influence, the Scandinavian kingdoms drew close=
r together in the 1300's. In 1357 Margrethe I became queen of Denmark. Durin=
g the next ten years, she also became the ruler of Norway and Sweden. Under =
her leadership, the three Scandinavian kingdoms joined together as one natio=
n in the Union of Kalmar. Denmark soon dominated the Union. After several un=
successful revolts against Danish policies, Sweden broke away and became a s=
eparate independent kingdom in 1523.
Economic Growth
The strength of royal governments rested on the growth of Europe's economy.=
During the mid-1400"s, the economic slump ended. New, profitable busin=
esses appeared that brought prosperity to new heights. New techniques and in=
ventions increased production. Trade expanded, and Europe's cities increased=
their wealth.
Metals
Significant changes took place in the making and use of=
metal. Artisans developed skills in metalworking and made better firearms, =
tools, machine parts, and housewares. They also developed more accurate meas=
uring instruments. One of the most important of these measuring devices was =
the mechanical clock. Operated by a system of gears, the mechanical clock pe=
rmanently altered European lifestyles. With the more precise measurement of =
time, Europeans began to live more ordered lives. At the same time, they los=
t much of the spontaneity, or naturalness, of earlier generations.
With a greater demand for metals, the metals business boomed. In mineral-ri=
ch areas of central Europe, miners dug deeper mines and used pumps to drain =
off underground water. Simple blast furnaces were built to enable metalworke=
rs to use the increased supply of ore. Huge bellows, driven by water power, =
aided the smelting and working of metal.
By the late 1400's, Europeans were producing a variety of metal products. T=
hey were also producing a large amount of silver for coinage. Money became p=
lentiful and further stimulated the economy.
Printing
Advances in metals led to a new development in printing=
. About 1440 a German craftsman named Johann Gutenberg perfected a printing =
press that used movable metal type. With this invention, books could be prin=
ted quickly by machine rather than slowly by hand. As printing presses becam=
e widely used throughout' Europe, more books were reproduced at cheaper pric=
es. Through printed books, new ideas spread more rapidly and reached a large=
r number of people. Learning was no longer an activity limited to the rich a=
nd the clergy. With the growth of skilled, educated urban groups, Europe was=
ready for the Renaissance.
The Italian Renaissance
In the late 1300's, the Renaissance began in the communes, or towns of Ital=
y. Unlike other areas of Europe, Italy had largely avoided the economic cris=
is of the Late Middle Ages. Italian towns remained important centers of Medi=
terranean trade and boosted their production of textiles and luxury goods. E=
conomic prosperity brought new wealth and gave Italians a sense of pride in =
their local communities.
More than other Europeans, Italians were attached to classical traditions. =
The ruins of ancient Roman buildings, arches, and amphitheaters constantly r=
eminded them of their heritage. Also through trade, Italian towns remained i=
n close contact with the Byzantine Empire. Byzantine scholars preserved the =
learning of ancient Greece.
Humanism
As newly-discovered works came to their attention, Italian scholars develop=
ed an enthusiastic interest in classical writings. This interest in the clas=
sics came to be called humanism, and the scholars who promoted it were calle=
d humanists. Humanists improved their understanding of Greek and Latin, stud=
ied old manuscripts, and tried to copy the classical writing style.
As they studied, humanists came to admire classical culture and adopted man=
y Greek and Roman beliefs. The most important belief they accepted was the d=
ignity and worth of the individual. As a result, humanism came to mean more =
than just the study of the classics. It also meant a concern for people and =
all aspects of human life. Italian humanists, with their stress on individua=
lism, soon brought about the achievements of the Renaissance.
Petrarch
One of the earliest humanists was Francesco Petrarca, o=
r Petrarch, who lived from 1304 to 1374. Known as the Father of Humanism, Pe=
trarch promoted the revival of classical studies, collected ancient manuscri=
pts, and wrote letters in elegant Latin. He influenced the development of It=
alian literature. Petrarch's style of writing served as a model for writers =
for more than 200 years. His most noted works were 36 sonnets, or short poem=
s, dedicated to Laura, a woman who died during the Black Death.
Boccaccio
Another Italian writer influenced by humanism was Giova=
nni Boccaccio. Like Petrarch, Boccaccio studied the classics and wrote in La=
tin. His most famous work is the Decameron, a collection of short stories wr=
itten in Italian. The Decameron describes a group of young people who flee f=
rom Florence to the countryside during the Black Death. For ten days, they s=
pent their time telling stories. All of these tales present a vivid and colo=
rful account of Italian life during the 1300's.
Italian Renaissance Life
Town life was stronger in Italy than in other parts of Europe. As a result,=
Italians could easily discard feudalism and other medieval institutions tha=
t had their origins in the rural north. Italy did not become unified as did =
France and
England. Wealthy and successful, most Italian communes resisted the efforts=
of emperors, kings, and nobles to control them. They became independent cit=
y-states. Each included a walled urban center and the surrounding countrysid=
e. With their freedom, Italians were able to carry out new endeavors in a va=
riety of fields.
Social Groups
The Italian city-states developed a new social order in=
which wealth and ability were more important than aristocratic titles and l=
andownership. Wealthy Merchants and bankers replaced the landed nobility as =
the most powerful social group. Because of their comfortable lifestyle, they=
were known as the populo grasso, or "fat people. " Beneath them w=
ere shopkeepers and artisans called the populo minuto, or "little peopl=
e." The populo minuto were moderately prosperous- and employed large nu=
mbers of poor workers. Most of the workers came to urban areas from the coun=
tryside. They made up the majority of town dwellers. The lowest social group=
were the peasants, who worked on the country estates of the populo grasso a=
nd supplied the towns with food.
Government
At first, most Italian city states were republics with =
elected officials. They were not very stable. Social groups often fought eac=
h other for power. Political disputes in particular divided the populo grass=
o and the populo minuto-the two social groups that could participate in gove=
rnment. Workers, who usually had little or no political influence, often ros=
e in rebellion to demand equal rights. The two upper social groups put aside=
their differences and worked together whenever their privileges were threat=
ened from below. They were able to crush workers' rebellions and to continue=
their control of the city-states.
During the 1400's, social conflicts grew worse and paralyzed governments. T=
o end these crises, many city-states turned all political authority over to =
powerful leaders called signori. The signori set up dictatorships, or govern=
ments controlled by one person or group. They used force to subdue their ene=
mies and to restore law and order. Many signori also worked to win the loyal=
ty of their people. They improved city services, promoted business, and ente=
rtained the poor with parades and ceremonies. They also supported the arts a=
nd encouraged learning.
Warfare
While dealing with internal unrest, the Italian city-st=
ates fought a long series of wars with each other. They made and unmade alli=
ances and tried to enlarge their territories. Unlike the nobility, the merch=
ants, bankers, and shopkeepers disliked military duty since it interfered wi=
th their business and trade. So the signori replaced citizen soldiers with m=
ercenaries known as condottieri.
The Italian city-states found that wars were expensive. Thus, they began to=
seek territorial gain through negotiated agreements. To carry out this poli=
cy, the Italian city-states established the first modern diplomatic services=
. Permanent ambassadors were appointed to stay at foreign courts and represe=
nt their home territories. To maintain peace in Italy, the city-states worke=
d out a balance of power. That is, they agreed that no one city-state would =
be allowed to gain enough power to threaten the others. During the 1500's, b=
oth of these practices--diplomacy and the balance of power-were adopted by o=
ther European states in their relations with each other.
Although the Italian city-states had much in common, each developed its own=
individual life. Two cities in particular played leading roles in the Renai=
ssance. They were Florence and Rome.
Florence was the birthplace of the Italian Renaissance.=
Located in central Italy, its major economic activities. were banking and t=
extile production. Originally a republic, Florence in the 1400's came under =
the rule of a prominent banking family known as the Medicis. Cosimo de"=
Medici, the first of his family to rule Florence, favored the lower and mid=
dle social groups over the rich. He worked to establish peace between Floren=
ce and its neighbors. Because of the popularity of his policies, Cosimo earn=
ed the title pater patrae, or "'the father of his country. "
Florence
Cosimo's grandson Lorenzo, who ruled from 1469 to 1492, was also a popular =
leader. During Lorenzo's rule, Florence became known for its splendid festiv=
als, elegant social life, and beautiful buildings. It became a city of art a=
nd learning. Lorenzo used his wealth to support artists, philosophers, and w=
riters. As a result of the city's prosperity and fame, Lorenzo was known as =
"the Magnificent. "
During the 1490's, Florence's economic prosperity faded, and the people gre=
w tired of Medici rule. Discontented groups gave their support to a Dominica=
n friar named Girolamo Savonarola. In his fiery preaching, Savonarola accuse=
d the Medicis of corruption and called for the reform of Florence's governme=
nt. In 1494 Savonarola's supporters overthrew the Medicis.
Savonarola believed that Renaissance values encouraged loose living and wer=
e ruining Florence. On his advice, the city's new leaders imposed strict reg=
ulations on public behavior. Parties, gambling, swearing, and horse racing w=
ere banned. Savonarola urged his listeners to repent. For a time, he had cro=
wds make bonfires to burn paintings, fancy clothes, and musical instruments.=
Savonarola soon aroused a great deal of opposition. His criticism of church=
officials angered the Pope. Many people in Florence disliked his strict way=
s. In 1498 Savonarola was hanged for heresy, and the Medicis returned to pow=
er. However, by this time, Florence's greatness had passed.
Rome
About 1500 Rome replaced Florence as the leading Renais=
sance city. The popes, who were anxious to increase their prestige, rebuilt =
the city. They had architects construct large churches and palaces with beau=
tiful gardens, fountains, and sculpture. Scholars came from all over Europe =
to study manuscripts and books in the Vatican Library.
Renaissance popes often placed political goals ahead of religious duties. I=
n ruling the Papal States, they sent ambassadors to other lands, collected t=
axes, and fought wars. The most politically-minded Pope was Alexander VI. El=
ected Pope in 1492, Alexander had bribed the College of Cardinals to vote fo=
r him. Once in office, he used the wealth of the Church to support his famil=
y, the Borgias. He especially encouraged his son Cesare, who raised an army =
and conquered much of central Italy.
After Alexanders death in 1503, his successors, Julius II and later Leo X, =
promoted artistic projects to beautify Rome. Their most notable effort was t=
he rebuilding -of St. Peter's Basilica, the largest church in the Christian =
world.
Italian Renaissance Learning
Italian Renaissance writers and thinkers became the first people to realize=
that Europe was leaving the Middle Ages and entering a new era. They saw th=
e medieval period as a time of darkness and looked forward to a new civiliza=
tion based on the long-forgotten ideals of ancient Greece and Rome. Inspired=
by classical culture, they improved methods of education, developed new sty=
les of literature, and established new rules of conduct.
Scholarship
Italian humanists advanced learning and laid the founda=
tion of modern western scholarship. Instead of promoting a cause, they aimed=
to be impartial in their search for truth. To help them in their work, they=
developed new methods of research.
For the first time, western scholars carefully began to analyze and interpr=
et old documents, using their knowledge of classical languages. Their resear=
ch led them to challenge long-standing traditions about the past. Humanists =
became concerned about accuracy and legibility in writing. They developed ru=
les for spelling and grammar. They produced dictionaries, textbooks, and oth=
er educational materials.
Teaching
Humanists were devoted to teaching as well as to resear=
ch. They began to replace the clergy as leaders in education. Schools based =
on humanist principles were set up in the towns to train the sons of wealthy=
merchants and artisans. In addition to such traditional subjects as reading=
, writing, and arithmetic, students studied the classics, history, and philo=
sophy.
Humanists called these new studies studia Humanitatis, or the humanities. T=
hey believed that the humanities would train well-rounded citizens. As part =
of this program, students also learned good manners and took part in bodybui=
lding sports such as wrestling, fencing, and swimming.
Literature
The Renaissance emphasis on. the individual led to the =
development of new forms of literature. One of these was the modern autobiog=
raphy. In the mid-1550's, Benvenuto Cellini, a goldsmith-sculptor, wrote his=
famous Autobiography, in which he described his fastpaced life and boasted =
about his many various accomplishments.
Another achievement in literature was the writing of political science. In =
the early 1500's, Niccolo Machiavelli, a diplomat from Florence, wrote The P=
rince, a book which realistically analyzed the politics of Renaissance Italy=
. According to Machiavelli, rulers must be prepared to use force and deceit =
in order to hold power. While critics charged that Machiavelli's book justif=
ied immoral behavior in politics, The Prince appealed to power-hungry Renais=
sance rulers. It also influenced the political thought and actions of later =
generations.
Manners
Renaissance writers produced handbooks to instruct town=
speople in good manners. The most famous handbook was The Courtier, written =
in 1518 by the diplomat-scholar Baldassare Castiglione. In The Courtier, men=
were taught to be "the ideal gentlemen," skilled in many fields o=
f knowledge, including art, science, sports, and politics. The ideal Renaiss=
ance hostess was to be graceful, attractive, courteous, and well educated. <=
BR>
Women
The Renaissance emphasis on education and good manners =
improved somewhat the position of women. Aristocratic women were given new r=
espect and allowed more educational opportunities. Girls from noble families=
were taught at home by tutors, some of whom were noted humanist scholars. M=
erchants' daughters attended schools in convents. No formal learning was pro=
vided for daughters of the poor. They were taught to sew, cook, and manage a=
household.
A number of Renaissance women made outstanding contributions. Isabella d'Es=
te, duchess of Mantua, a small Italian territory, was one of the most intell=
igent and cultured persons of her day. After her husband was captured in bat=
tle, Isabella ruled Mantua with great political skill and attracted artists =
and scholars to her court. Another famous noblewoman was Lucretia Borgia, da=
ughter of Pope Alexander VI. She became known for her lively parties and her=
love of music and the arts. She also gained a reputation for poisoning her =
enemies.
Italian Renaissance Art
Art was an important part of life in Renaissance Italy. The public apprecia=
ted works of art and hailed great artists as geniuses. Nobles and townspeopl=
e used art to decorate homes as well as churches. They lavishly rewarded art=
ists and gave them a prominent place in society. Having greater security and=
self-confidence, Renaissance artists developed new forms and techniques bas=
ed on the classical ideals of beauty, simplicity, elegance, and balance. In =
their works, they sought to praise human achievement and to win fame for the=
mselves.
Architecture
Italian Renaissance architects departed from the Gothic=
style and returned to classical architecture. They used domes, columns, and=
other classical features in the construction of new churches, palaces, home=
s, and villas. Renaissance architects tried to make their buildings both com=
fortable and beautiful. They filled them with tapestries, paintings, statues=
, finely made furniture, and glass windows.
The most famous Italian Renaissance architect was Filippo Brunelleschi. Bru=
nelleschi studied Roman ruins to learn the principles of classical architect=
ure. In 1436 he completed an octagonal, or eight-sided, dome for the cathedr=
al of Florence. The people of Florence considered Brunelleschi's dome to be =
the greatest engineering feat of the time.
Sculpture
Renaissance sculpture reflected a return to classical i=
deals. Sculptors were primarily concerned about expressing the beauty of the=
human body. They carefully studied human anatomy and made lifelike statues =
that accurately showed muscles, joints, and other body parts. Unlike medieva=
l sculpture, Renaissance figures were usually nude and stood free of any arc=
hitectural background.
The earliest Renaissance sculptor was Donatello. Donatello worked in Floren=
ce, where he sculpted the first statue cast in bronze since ancient times. A=
nother sculptor, Lorenzo Ghiberti, designed bronze doors for the baptistry o=
f Florence's cathedral. His work combined the classical style with a medieva=
l religious theme. The people of Florence greatly admired Ghiberti's doors a=
nd called them the "Gates of Heaven."
Painting
Italian Renaissance painters departed from the flat, sy=
mbolic style of medieval painting and became more realistic. They tried to s=
how human forms and facial features as they looked in real life. They aimed =
to portray thoughts, feelings, and action. This realistic style was develope=
d as a result of the careful study of classical art, science, mathematics, t=
he details of nature, and human anatomy.
Biblical, classical, and mythological characters were common subjects in Re=
naissance paintings. The emphasis on realism also encouraged the painting of=
portraits, landscapes, and scenes from everyday life.
The new style of painting was first developed in Florence. In the early 130=
0's, Giotto, an artist-sculptor-architect, did a series of frescoes showing =
the life of Francis of Assisi. The figures in the frescoes looked like real =
people with strong emotions.
Later in the 1400's, Masaccio, another artist of Florence, painted Tribute =
Money, a wall painting that portrayed Jesus and his disciples. In painting, =
Masaccio used light and shade to create rounded figures and to set them apar=
t from the background. He gave his paintings a sense of depth by using persp=
ective. That is, figures and objects were made to look smaller as they appea=
red farther away from the viewer. Masaccio's use of lighting and perspective=
influenced later Renaissance artists.
High Renaissance
Renaissance art reached its height in Rome during the e=
arly 1500's. This period is often called the High Renaissance.
During the High Renaissance, a number of gifted artists appeared who worked=
in a variety of fields. In many ways, they represented the Renaissance idea=
l of the individual.
Leonardo da Vinci
One of the greatest of the High Renaissance artists was Leonardo da Vinci. =
A citizen of Florence, he did much of his work in other Italian cities, incl=
uding Milan and Rome. Leonardo is best known for the Mona Lisa, a portrait o=
f a strangely smiling young woman of Florence, and the Last Supper, a wall p=
ainting of Jesus' last meal with his disciples. In both works, Leonardo skil=
lfully portrayed people's personalities, thoughts, and feelings as well as t=
heir physical appearances.
Leonardo da Vinci was a scientist as well as an artist. He wrote books on a=
stronomy, mathematics, and anatomy. He made illustrations of inventions far =
ahead of his time. His drawings include designs for parachutes, flying machi=
nes, mechanical diggers, and artillery.
Michelangelo Buonarroti
Another outstanding High Renaissance artist was Michela=
ngelo Buonarroti. Michelangelo began his career as a sculptor in Florence. T=
here, he did the marble statue of David, after the biblical character. Later=
in Rome, he sculpted Pieta, which shows the dead Jesus in the arms of his m=
other Mary. Most of Michelangelo's sculptures were awesome in size and sugge=
sted controlled but intense emotions .
In 1505 Michelangelo was hired to work at the Vatican, the Pope's court in =
Rome . Pope Julius II had him paint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. Showi=
ng scenes from the Old Testament, Michelangelo's completed work was describe=
d in glowing terms by the Renaissance biographer Giorgio Vasari:
When the=
work was thrown open, the whole world came running to see =
; what Michelangelo had=
done; and certainly it was such as to make everyone =
; speechless with astonishment. Then the Pope, exalte=
d by the results and
encourag=
ed to undertake even more grandiose enterprises, generously &nbs=
p; rewarded Michelangel=
o with rich gifts and money.*
Later Michelangelo painted Last judgment above the altar=
of the Sistine Chapel. All =
of Michelangelo's painted figures resembled works of sculpture. =
They had well-formed muscular bodies that expressed vitality and=
power. Michelangelo ended h=
is artistic career by designing the dome of the new =
Saint Peter's Basilica.
Raphael Santi
The last great artist of the High Renaissance was Rapha=
el Santi. Like Michelangelo, Raphael worked at the Vatican. He completed a s=
eries of paintings on classical and religious themes for the Pope's apartmen=
ts. Raphael is most noted for his paintings of Mary, the mother of Jesus. Th=
ese works were done in bright colors and reflected the Renaissance ideals of=
grace, harmony, and beauty.
Spread of the Renaissance
During, the late 1400's, the Renaissance spread from Italy to other areas o=
f Europe. Italian artists and scholars traveled to foreign courts and univer=
sities. Other Europeans, in turn, went to Italy and studied under Italian ma=
sters. Through these contacts, Italian ideas and styles were adopted by the =
rest of the continent.
France
The Renaissance came to France as a result of renewed warfare in the Italia=
n peninsula. In 1494 the French began a series of invasions of Italy. After =
a few early successes, they entered into a long conflict with the German and=
Spanish Hapsburgs, which lasted most of the 1500's. The war finally ended i=
n defeat for the French.
Francis I
The leading supporter of the Renaissance in France was=
Francis I, who ruled from 1515 to 1547. While in Italy, he and his nobles w=
ere attracted by Italian art and fashions. They brought Leonardo da Vinci an=
d other Italian artists and scholars to their courts in France. They also co=
llected Italian paintings and sculpture. Gradually, with royal and aristocra=
tic support, the French began to develop their own Renaissance based on Ital=
ian models.
The French particularly excelled in architecture. Francis I and his nobles =
hired Italian architects to build chateaux, or castles, in the Loire River V=
alley south of Paris. These chateaux became known or their blend of harmonio=
us classical design and graceful decoration.
Writers
The Renaissance in France led to the growth of French l=
iterature. French poets, led by Pierre de Ronsard and Joachim de Bellay, stu=
died classical works and adopted new writing styles from Italian Renaissance=
poetry. They wrote poems in French, using classical and Italian words to en=
rich their own language. The most noted French writer in prose was the physi=
cianmonk Francois Rabelais. Rabelais wrote comical tales and satire. In his =
popular works Gargantua and Pantagruel, he used adventure stories about two =
giants to poke fun at the Church, universities, and other institutions of hi=
s day. Rejecting the other worldliness of the Middle Ages, Rabelais believed=
that humans were naturally good and did not need salvation. Another writer,=
Michel de Montaigne, was more pessimistic about human nature. In Essays, Mo=
ntaigne pointed out the inconsistencies and flaws in human behavior.
Germany and the Low Countries
The Italian Renaissance was enthusiastically accepted by the wealthy towns =
of Germany and the Low Countries. Universities and schools promoted humanist=
learning, and printers produced a large quantity of books. Latin was still =
the main scholarly language, but writers increased their use of German and D=
utch.
Christian Humanism
Unlike Italy, the Renaissance in northern Europe had a =
more religious tone. Groups of scholars known as Christian humanists emerged=
. The most famous was Erasmus of Rotterdam.
Erasmus and his colleagues learned Greek and Hebrew so that they could unde=
rstand the earliest versions of the Bible. Their biblical studies helped the=
m appreciate early Christian beliefs and practices. As a result, they became=
critical of many church traditions that had developed during the Middle Age=
s. In his work Praise of Folly, Erasmus questioned such practices as monasti=
cism, the worship of saints, and elaborate church rituals.
The Christian humanists wanted reforms in Catholicism that would eliminate =
abuses and restore the simple piety of the early Church. They believed that =
humanist learning and Bible study were the best ways to promote these goals.=
Painting
Artists in northern Europe developed a style of paintin=
g that relied more on medieval than classical models. In the early 1400's, a=
group of Flemish painters, led by the brothers Jan and Hubert van Eyck, pai=
nted scenes from the Bible and daily life in sharp, realistic detail. They d=
eveloped the technique of painting in oils. Oils provided artists with riche=
r colors and allowed them to make changes on the painted canvas. Painting in=
oils soon spread to Italy. Meanwhile, Italian Renaissance art reached north=
ern Europe. Dutch artists such as Peter Brueghel combined Italian technique =
with the artistic traditions of their homeland. They began painting realisti=
c portraits, landscapes, and scenes of peasant life.
England
The Renaissance flourished in England after the Wars of the Roses, which en=
ded in 1485. Henry VII invited many Italian humanist scholars to England. Th=
ese people encouraged English scholars to study classical literature.
English humanists worked to improve their society. The biblical scholar Joh=
n Colet admired the Renaissance schools of Italy and founded a school in Lon=
don to train the sons of nobles and merchants for service in the Church and =
government. Another humanist, Thomas More, wrote Utopia, a book that critici=
zed the society of his day by comparing it with an ideal society in which al=
l citizens are equal and prosperous. More wrote his work in Latin and based =
it on Plato's Republic.
The English Renaissance was especially known for drama. The best known Engl=
ish playwrights, or writers of plays, were William Shakespeare and Christoph=
er Marlowe. They drew ideas for their works from medieval legends, classical=
mythology, and the histories of England and ancient Rome.
Effects of the Renaissance
By the late 1500's, the Renaissance had deeply influenced European life. It=
s emphasis on intellectual inquiry called into question many longstanding be=
liefs and practices. Its belief in the importance of the individual led to a=
growing dissatisfaction with the restraints imposed by traditional politica=
l and religious authorities. Although secular in its outlook, the Renaissanc=
e did not necessarily contradict Europe's Christian heritage. In fact, a rel=
igious revival took place alongside the new interest in the classics. Devout=
Europeans, in greater numbers, were concerned about the worldliness of the =
institutional Church and began to search for a more personal faith. This spi=
ritual restlessness soon led to a religious crisis in western Europe.
1. Identify: Francis I, Francois Rabelais, Praise of Foll=
y, Peter Brueghel, Thomas More, William Shakespeare.
1. Identify: Black Death, Edward III, Hundred Years' War,=
Joan of Arc, Calais, Avignon, Great Schism.
1. Identify: Louis XI, Wars of the Roses, Isabella,
Hapsburg, Margrethe I, Johann Gutenberg.
1. Identify: Petrarch, Boccaccio, Lorenzo de" Medici=
, Girolamo Savonarola, Alexander VI, Saint Peter's Basilica, Niccolo Machiav=
elli, Isabella d'Este, Masaccio, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti.=
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