Chapter Eleven The Reformation During the 1300's and 1400's, the Roman Catholic Church still held the loyalty of almost all western Europeans.' However, its leaders failed to adjust to the many social, economic, and political changes taking place in western Europe. As a result, it suffered serious setbacks and lost much of its spiritual influence. Serious abuses continued in the administration of the Church, and the clergy often placed worldly ambition ahead of their spiritual duties. Around 1500, educated western Europeans were calling for a reformation, or a change in the ways the Church 6ught and practiced Christianity. However, they differed about the types of change needed. Conservative reformers wanted to restore the Church's spiritual health while keeping the best of its medieval traditions. Radical reformers questioned basic Catholic teachings and practices. They called for more preaching and a return to the simpler faith of the early Church. These differences led to a split in western Christianity that has lasted to the present time. By 1600, western Europe and .the areas of the world under its influence had many Christian churches. All of these churches competed with each other for the faith of the people. Cry for Reform The 1300's and 1400"s in western Europe were still an "age of faith. People were filled with respect and awe for the power of God. Art, literature, and architecture were generally concerned with religious themes. Although Renaissance scholars adopted secular attitudes, they avoided an open break with the Church. For the common people, life was harsh. Disease, famine, and war were continual threats. The new learning of the Renaissance had little impact on the average European, whose knowledge of the natural world remained very limited. People often felt helpless in the face of the difficult circumstances. The Church was for many the only source of comfort in a seemingly dark and mysterious world. Church Abuses During the Middle Ages, popes had acquired much power and wealth. With the growth of papal authority, serious abuses appeared in the Church. One of the abuses concerned money. The large administrative structure of medieval Catholicism was expensive to maintain. To acquire more funds, the clergy used many were unpopular and hurt' the' Church's spiritual fife. Fees were charged for almost every kind of church service. Simony, or the selling of church positions, was especially disliked since the price of buying an office was passed on to the common people. In addition, one person would often hold several church positions and never carry out any of the responsibilities. Along with these abuses, the popes and higher clergy became increasingly accustomed to living in luxury like secular princes. Their lifestyles further damaged public regard for the Church. Church Councils The Babylonian Captivity and the Great Schism aroused great resentment against the powers of the papacy. Many kings, princes, and church scholars called for a reform of church government. The most popular remedy was a general church council. However, there were several problems with this solution. First, such councils were traditionally called by popes. No Pope was willing to call a council that would limit his authority. Yet, the legality of a council would be questionable if it did not receive papal approval. Second, different rulers in Europe supported particular popes for political reasons. Such political divisions made it almost impossible to reach agreement on the site of a council, not to mention the deeper issues involved. Finally, the question was raised: if the Pope could be deposed by a council, who was the real head of the Church? By 1400 many western Europeans were committed to the idea of a church council, In 1417 a church council at Constance, Switzerland, ended the Great Schism. The new Pope, Martin V, and his immediate successors restored papal authority and limited the use of church councils. Still, the effects of the Great Schism lingered and seriously undermined respect for the papacy. John Wycliffe. In the late 1300's, papal policies had been strongly opposed in England. There, an ' Oxford University scholar named John Wycliffe spoke out against the papacy. Claiming that the Bible was the sole authority for religious truth, Wycliffe criticized the Church's wealth and its hierarchy of clergy. He wanted secular rulers to remove church officials who were immoral or corrupt. He also called for an end to church ceremonies that were not mentioned in the Bible. Wycliffe's most revolutionary act was translating the Bible from Latin into English so that the common people could read it for themselves. Such an act made it more difficult for the Church to keep its monopoly on religious truth. It also led Wycliffe's followers, known as Lollards, to develop a variety of biblical interpretations. To show their dislike of the Church, the more radical Lollards destroyed the images of saints, ridiculed the Mass, and ate communion bread with onions to show that it was no different from regular bread. Because of widespread anti-papal feelings, the government found it difficult to suppress the Lollards. Wycliffe himself was persuaded to moderate his views and received only a mild punishment. He died peacefully in 1384, and his beliefs continued to spread. Many influential people in England supported the Lollards. They included Queen Anne, the wife of King Richard II. Born in Bohemia, Anne sent several copies of Wycliffe's writings to her homeland. There, his views became popular. Jan Hus During the late 1300's and early 1400's, the Slavs of Bohemia, known as Czechs, strongly backed reforms in the Catholic Church. In addition, they became aware of their own national identity and wanted to end German control of their country. Czech religious and national grievances combined to produce an explosive situation. The Czechs began to criticize the corruption of leading church officials, many of whom were German. . They produced religious pamphlets and, copies of the Bible in the Czech language rather than in Latin. The leader of the Czech reform movement was the popular.preacher and University professor Jan Hus. The religious views of Hus were similar to those of Wycliffe. His writing and preaching aroused anti-Church and anti-German feelings. When Hus and his works were condemned by church and political leaders, a wave of demonstrations and riots swept across Bohemia. Hussite Wars Faced with the possibility of a full-scale rebellion against the Church, the Council at Constance in 1415 called Hus before it to defend his views. The Council gave the Czech reformer a promise of protection. It later went back on its word and had Hus burned at the stake as a heretic. Instead of depriving the Czechs of a leader, this act provided them with a hero around whom they could rally. From 1420 to 1436, a series of battles known as the Hussite Wars took place in Bohemia between the supporters of Hus and the defenders of the Church. During these wars, the Church, with the support of the Holy Roman Emperor, launched five crusades against the Hussites, as the supporters of Hus were called. All of the crusades failed. Hussite soldiers, mostly peasants, were brave fighters. They combined the new firearms technology with the ancient Bohemian tactic of forming defensive walls with farm wagons. The pro-Catholic forces were unable to break the strength and determination of Hussites. Hussite armies pushed north into Germany, plundering towns and villages all the way to the Baltic Sea. Peace By 1436 the Church realized that it could not defeat the Hussites. Representatives of the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor held talks with the Hussite leaders. Their. aim was to keep Hussite beliefs from spreading beyond Bohemia to other parts of Europe. The Hussites, not ready for a complete break with Rome, were willing to compromise. The Church allowed them certain religious liberties in return for allegiance to the Church. Although Hussite military expansion was checked, Hussite ideas spread throughout Europe to influence later and more radical reformers. 1 . Identify: Martin V, John Wycliffe, Lollards, Bohemia, Jan Hus. 2. What abuses appeared in the late medieval Church? 3. What reforms did Wycliffe and Hus propose? How did their ideas influence European society? 2 Martin Luther In the early 1500's, a movement for church reform arose in Germany. It eventually led to a permanent split in the western Church and produced a new form of Christianity known as Protestantism . The series of events that gave birth to Protestantism is known as the Protestant Reformation. Luther's Early Life The Protestant Reformation was begun by a German named Martin Luther. Luther, born in 1483, was the son of peasants. His family wanted him to be a lawyer, but he was more interested in religion. In 1506 Luther was caught in a violent thunderstorm and nearly hit by lightning. Terrified by this ordeal, he vowed that he would become a monk. As a monk, Luther faithfully followed church teachings and practices. Yet he could find no peace of mind. He wondered how God would judge his actions and if he would go to heaven when he died. While studying the Bible, Luther found the answer to questions that had been troubling him. He decided that trusting in Jesus, rather than doing good works, would save people from their sins. Through faith, people could be certain that God loved them and that they would receive salvation. Luther later stated that because of this discovery he felt as if he "had been born again and had entered Paradise through wide open gates." Conflict In the following years, Luther's ideas quietly matured as h1v pursued a career as a university professor. They eventually brought him into conflict with the Church. ~ Pope Leo X, wanted money to rebuild St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. In order to raise the necessary funds, he authorized the sale of indulgences. These were documents issued by the Church that freed their owners from time in purgatory. According to Catholic teaching, purgatory is a place of suffering in the life to come. There, people must be purified of their sins before going to heaven. During the Middle Ages, the fear of purgatory strengthened the appeal of indulgences. Originally, indulgences had been granted to crusaders for their efforts in defending the faith. In time, they were sold to any of the faithful who wanted them. The idea was that the money paid was a sign of repentance and was made holy by being given to the Church. According to Catholic thinking, this was a good practice. However, the Church abused ft by using it as an easy way to raise money. Indulgence sales were especially profitable in Germany. There, no strong central government existed to hinder the Church's effort to raise money and take it out of the country. Such increased fund raising angered many Germans. It made them more willing to listen to criticism of the Church. The Church's agent for selling indulgences in northern Germany was John Tetzel. Tetzel's method of raising money was somewhat questionable. He told the local peasants that indulgences would relieve them of guilt for future sins and immediately free relatives already in purgatory. He even had a little jingle: "As soon as coin in the coffer [offering box] rings, a soul from purgatory springs." Ninety-Five Theses Luther at the time was a university professor in the town of Wittenberg. When asked about indulgences, he claimed that the practice was wrong, since people could not buy God's forgiveness for their sins. Tetzel denounced Luther's opinion about indulgences, and Luther took up the challenge. On October 31, 1517, Luther nailed a placard to the door of the Wittenberg Church. On the placard were 95 theses, or statements, that criticized the sale of indulgences as well as other practices. Luther's purpose was to stimulate debate within the Church. it was not to break away from the Church. Nonetheless, the result was a full-scale religious revolt that permanently destroyed Europe's religious unity. Diet of Worms Copies of Luther's theses were printed and spread all over Germany, where they found a receptive audience. Indulgence sales fell drastically, and church authorities in Rome became concerned. Papal representatives arrived in Germany and tried to convince Luther to give up his ideas. At first, Luther was open to some kind of understanding. But increasingly he found himself defying the Church. What began as a simple debate over certain church practices had developed into a challenge to papal authority. In 1521 Pope Leo X condemned Luther's ideas and cut him off from the Church. Luther, however, had widespread support among the German people. With the threat of a church schism in Germany, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V became involved in the dispute. He feared that religious turmoil would endanger the peace and unity of his realm. Charles also needed the Pope's support in ruling the Holy Roman Empire and in fighting wars against France. Therefore, he acted to stop the spread of Luther's teachings. A council of German princes, the Diet of Worms, was called in 1521 to consider Luther's case as well as other issues. At the council, the German princes, opposed to the emperor and his policies, backed Luther. Charles was forced to call Luther to the Diet to defend his views. Luther's friends, fearing the emperor's treachery, urged him not to go. But Luther was determined to go, "though there were as many devils in Worms as there are tfles on the roofs." His trip to Worms was like a triumphal parade as crowds of people came out to see him. Then came the eventful meeting between the Diet and the monk. Luther walked into the crowded assembly hall. A papal repesentative stood next to a table stacked with Luther's writings. He asked Luther if he would take back his teachings. Luther replied: I am bound by the Sacred Scriptures I have cited ... and my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and will not recant [take back] anything, for it is neither safe nor right to go against conscience. God help me. Amen.* Having defied church and empire, Luther was condemned as a heretic and an outlaw. Hurried out of Worms,, he was "ambushed" by his protector, Prince Frederick of Saxony, and hid in a castle for protection. Luther dropped out of public sight for a year. Meanwhile, his reformation spread rapidly across Germany. Rise of Lutheranism After Worms, Luther made his final break with Rome and formed the first of the Protestant faiths: Lutheranism. Lutherans, as the followers of Luther were called, did not claim that their faith was a new religion. In fact, it had many of the same beliefs as Catholicism. However, Luther stressed several teachings that distinguished his form of Christianity from the Catholic Church. These teachings were also followed by later Protestant groups. The most important Protestant teaching developed by Luther was salvation by faith alone. According to Luther, all of humanity is sinful in the eyes of a holy qod. No amount of good works, therefore, can win God's approval for salvation; all that people can do to win salvation is trust in God's love and mercy. Luther's second important teaching was that religious truth and authority lie only in the Bible, not in the institutions of the Church. As a result, Luther and other Protestant reformers simplified church doctrine and rituals to agree with New Testament practice. Instead of priests, Protestant religious leaders were called ministers. They did not have the same religious powers as Catholic priests, and they spent more time preaching from the Bible. Protestant worship services were held in the language of the area instead of in Latin. In this way, people could easily understand and share in the services. Luther also emphasized that the Church was not a hierarchy of clergy, but a community of believers. There was no real difference, he stated, between the clergy and laity in the eyes of God. All useful occupations, not just the priesthood or ministry, were important. They were vocations, or callings, in which people could serve God and their neighbors. This view appealed especially to merchants, traders, bankers, and artisans in the towns. Their concern for making profits had been regarded as unethical by the medieval Church. However, by the 1500's they were involved in the commercial revolution sweeping Europe. Business people concerned with secular affairs were glad to find a religious belief that gave respect to their occupations. Spread of Lutheranism A technological development that aided the Lutheran revolt was the printing press. Printed copies of Luther's writings were spread far and wide in such numbers that the Protestant movement could not be halted. By 1524 there were 990 different books in print in Germany. Eighty percent of those were by Luther and his followers. By 1546 there were some 100,000 copies of Luther's German translation of the Bible in circulation. Catholic writers in Germany tried to respond to Luther. But they were not as successful as the Lutherans in presenting their arguments and winning public support. By the mid-1500's, northern Germany was mostly Lutheran. Southern Germany remained Catholic, but even there Lutheranism had made solid gains. There were many reasons why Germans in large numbers supported Lutheranism. One reason was undoubtedly religious conviction. However, non-religious factors also were involved. German princes often accepted Luther's teachings in order to increase their own power. They made Lutheranism the state religion of their territories, placing it under their protection and control. They also seized lands and wealth owned by the Catholic Church. Townspeople also rallied to the new faith, which agreed with their business principles and practices. Peasants and laborers adopted Lutheranism as a form of protest against the traditionally Catholic ruling classes. Above all, many Germans saw Lutheranism as an opportunity to defy an Italian-controlled Catholic Church that drained so much money from Germany. With a strong base in Germany, the Lutherans were able to spread their doctrine to other lands. Germany was situated in the geographic and economic center of Europe. German merchants carried religious ideas as well as trade goods " all over the continent. From northern Germany, Lutheranism spread to the Scandinavian lands. The monarchs of Denmark and Sweden broke with Rome and established Lutheran state churches in their territories.' Luther's ideas also contributed to religious ferment in France, England, and the Netherlands. Luther's Achievement As Lutheranism spread, Luther tried to direct his religious movement so that it would not stray from the truth as he saw it. Thus, Luther often denounced Protestant leaders more radical than himself. To protect his movement, he also spoke out on political issues. One of Luther's most controversial political stands concerned a major peasant revolt that erupted in Germany in 1525. Luther saw the German princes as vital to the survival of the Reformation and thus sided with them against the peasants. Luther died in 1546 at the age of 63. By this time, the Protestant movement had grown too large for him to control. Luther's belief that all people had the right to read and understand the Bible led to a variety of biblical interpretations. New religious viewpoints emerged that were more radical than Luther would have liked. Meanwhile, Luther's hope for the peaceful conversion of Europe to Protestantism was often thwarted by fierce religious hatreds. In many European towns and villages, heated debates and riots often accompanied the removal of the Catholic clergy. Mounting fears of social disorder kept many people loyal to Rome who otherwise would have accepted Protestantism. Nevertheless, Luther's achievement was significant. As the first Protestant reformer, he had one foot in the past while shaping the future. Despite his opposition to the papacy, he held a largely medieval view of the world. However, his break with Rome shattered Christian unity in western Europe and opened the way for a different kind of European society. With the loss of a common religious viewpoint, western Europeans were able to create new ideas about the world that still shape western civilization today. 1 . Identify: Martin Luther, 95 theses, Pope Leo X, Diet of Worms, Frederick of Saxony. 2. Why did Luther post the 95 theses? What impact did his action have on the religious life of western Europe? What were the beliefs of Luther's movement? 4. Why did people support (or reject) Lutheranism? 3 Protestant Growth and Division The Catholic Church kept western Europe united under one religion for 1,000 years. Protestant unity lasted only about five years. Several reasons were responsible for divisions within Protestantism. First, Luther's successful challenge to the Catholic Church made it easier for other reformers to carry out their goals. Second, the printing press and-the vernacular translations of the Bible allowed more people to read and interpret scripture on their own. As a result of these factors, a number of religious groups developed from Luther's reformation. Huldreich Zwingli After the rise of Lutheranism, preachers and merchants in Switzerland separated from Rome and set up churches known as Reformed. One of the most important Reformed leaders was Huldreich Zwingli. Born in 1482, Zwingli differed from Luther in background and outlook. While Luther was a monk educated in the medieval tradition, Zwingh was an urban scholar trained in humanism. As a result, he was more optimistic than Luther about human nature and placed more value on the achievements of the non-Christian, classical civilizations. Swiss Refortnation Zwingli supported a religious reformation based entirely on the Bible. In 1518 he became a preacher in the Swiss city of Zurich, an important trading center. Zwingli followed Luther's example and spoke out against the sale of indulgences. He also publicly denounced other church abuses and thus began the Swiss Reformation. Like Luther, Zwingli stressed the importance of faith and denied many Catholic beliefs and practices, such as purgatory, monasteries, and celibacy. Zwingli's goal, unlike Luther's, was to break completely with Catholic tradition. His plan for doing this was to establish a theocracy, or church-run state, in Zurich. By 1525 Zwingh had succeeded in this objective. The Catholic mass was banned, and Protestantism enforced. Worship services were conducted in the vernacular. They consisted of sermons and Bible readings. Despite his personal love of music, Zwingli forbade its use in worship. He even smashed church organs. Religious images, which Zwingli regarded as idols, were destroyed. Communion was served in a wooden bowl instead of a silver chalice. Monasteries were closed or turned into hospitals and schools. Although not persecuted, Catholics had to pay fines for attending illegal masses and eating fish on Fridays (a common Catholic practice). They were also excluded from public office. City officials and clergy closely supervised the morals of Zurich's residents. This emphasis on strict personal behavior was later carried over into other Protestant movements. Religious Warfare By 1528 Zwinglfs Reformed church had won the support of northern Switzerland; the southern part of the country, however, remained Catholic. Zwingh feared Catholic enemies to the north and south of Zurich. He prepared Zurich for war, trying to unite with the German Lutherans against the Catholics. The proposed alliance between the two Protestant groups never occurred because of theological disagreements. Reformed missionary activity in the Catholic areas of Switzerland finally led to war in 1531. Zwingli and his force of 1,500 were destroyed by an army of 8,000 Catholics. An uneasy truce between Swiss Protestants and Catholics followed. Although defeated in battle, Zwingh left a solid religious foundation that ensured the survival of Swiss Protestantism. John Calvin In the mid-1500's, the most powerful and influential Reformed group developed in the Swiss city of Geneva. There, John Calvin, a French reformer, set up a theocracy similar to that of Zurich. Early Life Born in 1509, Calvin grew up in Catholic France as the first waves of the Reformation hit Europe. Although Protestantism was banned in France, its ideas still filtered across the border from Germany and had an impact on French thinkers. Unlike Luther, who was tormented by the problems of faith, Calvin was a much calmer individual. He seemed to have had few self-doubts and was known for his logical approach to religious issues. Calvin received a good education in theology, law, and humanism. This background prompted him to read the Bible more carefully. He seems to have had a religious conversion in 1533 as a result of humanist influences and without the inner turmoil that had driven Luther to a similar conversion. Beliefs The cornerstone of Calvin's theology was God's all-encompassing power and knowledge. According to Calvin, there was nothing in the past, present, or future that God did not know or control. He also held that from the beginning of time God decided who would be saved and who would be condemned for eternity. This doctrine-that God determines the fate of every human being-is known as predestination. Calvin used scripture and local argument to support this belief. Calvin put forth his religious views in his book the Institutes of the Christian Religion, published in its final form in 1559. It was one of the most popular books of its day and influenced religious reformers in western Europe and North America. Geneva Calvin went beyond words in trying to advance his religion. In 1536 he took control of the Swiss city of Geneva. At the time, Geneva was in economic decline and known for its moral corruption. Calvin tried to turn the city into a model religious community. His reforms met stiff resistance. The reformer was forced to leave Geneva for a while before being persuaded to resume his work. It took Calvin 20 years to complete the reformation of the city. Under Calvin's reforms, the city government still functioned. But the Consistory, a church council of 12 elders, exercised real power over the daffy lives of the people. All citizens were considered members of the Reformed faith and were required to attend church services three or four times a week. Such acts as fighting, swearing, drunkenness, gambling, card playing, and dancing were outlawed. Members of the Consistory made annual inspections of homes to ensure that moral values were upheld. Punishments in Geneva were harsh, with 58 executions between 1542 and 1564. Most of these were for holding Catholic beliefs or practicing witchcraft. Given such a strict atmosphere, Geneva became known as the "City of the Saints." It attracted reformers from all parts of Europe and became the leading center of Protestant learning. Calvinism John Calvin's teaching, known as Calvinism, became the most popular form of Protestantism outside of the Lutheran strongholds of Germany and Scandinavia. Calvinists, as John Calvin's followers were called, later controlled the countries of the Netherlands, Scotland, and England. Unlike Lutheranism, Calvinism was not linked to a particular nation or form of government. It also had no strong backing from royalty and princes. As a result, Calvinism received widespread support among the common people who disliked the old medieval social structure of Europe. Of all the Protestant groups, the Calvinists were the most dynamic and missionary-minded. They spread their faith to new areas. As a result of this zeal, they often faced intense persecution. What supported them during these difficulties was the belief that they were God's elect, or chosen people. The Calvinists were also helped by their form of church government. Calvinist church organization was based on local councils of ministers and elected church members. Because of its partially democratic nature, the organization gave participants a stake in its welfare and inspired their loyalty. Since power was distributed among many people, it was harder for enemies to eliminate a few leaders and destroy the movement. Calvin himself preached obedience to civil authority unless religious conviction forced disobedience. However, he cautioned against open resistance. God alone, he said, would punish evil rulers. Some Calvinists preferred to ignore Calvin's instruction. John Knox, the fiery leader of the Reformation in Scotland, preached the right of moral people to overthrow wicked princes. Other Calvinists were proclaiming that the rights of the people came before those of monarchs. Thus, Calvinism became a dynamic social force in western Europe. Eventually, it contributed to the birth of the early revolutionary movements of the western world. Protestant Radicals Once the religious monopoly of the Catholic Church was broken, Protestant leaders had to decide how far they should carry out the Reformation. Luther, Zwingh, and Calvin, despite significant religious differences, shared a common set of beliefs. Among these beliefs were obedience to government authority and respect for the existing social order. Some reformers, however, demanded more changes and split with the conservative leadership of the Reformation. As a result, numerous religious sects emerged in western Europe apart from the established churches. Although their beliefs differed in detail from one another, these sects were included together under the name of Anabaptists. They received this name because they shared in common the practice of baptizing, or admitting into the Church, only adult members. The Catholic and the established Protestant churches admitted infants into church membership. The Anabaptists disagreed with this traditional practice, claiming that people must be able to make a free choice whether or not to be Christians. The Anabaptists were more deeply involved in social unrest than the other Protestant groups. The 1500's saw economic difficulties resulting from rising population and inflation. Peasants, artisans, and miners were especially affected. It was they who in large numbers joined the Anabaptists in hope of a better world. Most Anabaptists honored the Bible as the Word of God. But they also believed that God spoke directly to the human soul. As a result of this belief, Anabaptists often denied the right of civil governments to direct their lives. They refused to hold office, bear arms, or swear oaths. Thus, the Anabaptist movements were regarded with suspicion by government authorities. Still, most Anabaptists led quiet, peaceful Christian lives. They did not openly resist the authorities. Like the earliest Christians, they helped each other and often held property in common. A few, however, went to extremes in interpreting the Bible literally. They tended to separate themselves from the rest of society which they saw as sinful. In spite of their peaceful ways, the Anabaptists were often persecuted. They were forced to -migrate throughout Europe. In the process, they spread their beliefs throughout Switzerland, Germany, and the Netherlands. In certain areas, the Anabaptist movement turned violent as it accepted revolutionary ideas popular among German and Dutch peasants. The climax of this development occurred in the German city of Munster in the early 1530's. In Munster, radical Anabaptists seized power. They combined religious fanaticism with a reign of terror that tarnished the reputation of other Anabaptists for years. All books but the Bible were burned. Property was held in common, and polygamy was enforced. John Bockleson, the leader, ruled with a lavish court. He assured his poorer followers that they too would eat from gold plates and silver tables in the near future. So alarming was this spectacle that Lutherans and Catholics combined forces to crush it. The disciplined resistance of the Anabaptists led to a year long siege. The city was finally betrayed, and the Anabaptist leaders killed. An intense persecution of Anabaptists followed. Thousands were killed, and the survivors were hounded from place to place. Years later, Anabaptist groups would leave Europe for North America. There, they would have a profound influence in shaping two important modern ideas: religious toleration and the separation of church and state. English Reformation On the eve of the Reformation, the monarchs of France, Spain, and England had assumed increasing control over the Catholic Church within their lands. As a result, these rulers had few grievances against the Pope. They, however, were hostile to the Protestant Reformation since it threatened their control of religious affairs. Because of their strength, these monarchs were able to limit the spread of Protestantism among the lower classes of their kingdoms. Yet, the Protestant movement was eventually welcomed in England as a result of a political quarrel between the Tudor king, Henry VIII, and the Pope. Break With Rome Trouble between Henry VIII and the Pope began in 1526. Henry needed a son to succeed him to the throne. He feared that without a male heir, England might plunge into a civil war similar to that of the Wars of the Roses. Henry's wife, Catherine of Aragon, had one child, Mary. Now that Catherine was older, Henry feared she could no longer have children. Thus, he wanted his marriage ended so he could find a new wife to bear him a son. Catherine of Aragon was the aunt of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. Charles wanted his aunt to remain as queen of England in order to influence the country's policies in favor of the Hapsburgs. Charles was, the protector of the Pope, who had the power to grant or refuse Henry's request for an end to the marriage. As a result of Hapsburg pressure, the Pope rejected Henry's request. Meanwhile, Henry had fallen in love with Anne Boleyn, a young woman of the court. He decided to act on his own to end his marriage with Catherine and to marry Anne. To carry out this plan, Henry, in 1533, started to break England's ties with the Catholic Church. He did this gradually with the backing of Parliament. In using Parliament Henry wanted to show that his actions were the will of the English people rather than his own whim. Money was no longer sent to Rome, church courts were closed, and Henry was given more authority over the English clergy. In 1534 Parliament finally passed a law that separated the Church of England from Rome and made Henry head of the English Church. The average churchgoer in England noticed very little difference in the English Church's beliefs and practices as a result of the split with Rome. The Church of England maintained the Catholic faith while denying the Pope. Consequently, most English people accepted it willingly since there were no drastic changes. Devout Catholics, however, opposed the break with Rome. The most noted of them was Sir Thomas More, the humanist scholar. Accused of high treason, More was condemned by a royal court and beheaded in 1535. Protestant England When Henry VIII died, his 9-year-old son became King Edward VI.1 Since Edward was too young to rule, a council of lords governed England for him. Most of the council members were Protestants, and they brought Protestant doctrines into the English Church. Upon Edward's death in 1553, Henry's daughter Mary became queen. A devout Catholic, Mary I restored Roman Catholicism, insisting that all her subjects acknowledge the Pope. When many Protestants refused, she began to persecute them. The English people turned against her, calling her "Bloody Mary." Many people became solid supporters of Protestantism as a result of Mary's persecution. Mary I died in 1558 without a child to succeedher. Her half sister Elizabeth became queen. Elizabeth I was Protestant and, with the help of Parliament, ended the Pope's authority in the English Church. To unite her people, both Catholics and Protestants, Elizabeth decided that the English Church should be Protestant, but with some Catholic features. The monarch would be head of the Church, which would teach Protestant beliefs. At the same time, however, bishops would handle daily affairs as they did in the Catholic Church. Many rituals would also be similar to those of the Catholic Church. Most English people were pleased with Anghcanism, as this blend of Protestant belief and Catholic practice was called. The few groups of Catholics who were not pleased remained outside the English Church. Some groups of Protestants also opposed Elizabeth's Church, but they did not leave it. Because they wanted to "purify" the-English Church of Catholic ways, they became known as Puritans. The English Reformation was important for two reasons. First, it made England the leading defender of Protestantism. English support helped preserve Protestantism from possible extinction during a series of religious wars in the late 1500's. Second, the Puritans in the English Church became influential by the early 1600's. As a result of their Calvinist principles, they opposed strong royal authority and wanted to extend the rights of Parliament. Puritan ideas eventually contributed to the rise and spread of democracy in England and North America. 4 The Catholic Reformation While Protestantism triumphed in northern Europe, it had limited success in other parts of the continent. Spain and France, the two most powerful European monarchies, remained Catholic. Catholicism also remained strong in Italy, Portugal, Hungary, Poland, and southern Germany. Although Catholicism had many strongholds, it was still threatened by the growth of the Protestant Reformation. To meet the Protestant challenge, Catholic reformers worked to improve their Church. Through this "Counter Reformation," the Catholic Church eliminated many abuses, clearly defined its theology, and reestablished the Pope's authority over its members. First Efforts Since the middle Ages, the Catholic Church periodically had faced criticism of abuses in its teachings and practices. Several times, reform movements loyal to the Church had made improvements and restored its spiritual life. As a result of their efforts, the Church was able to overcome threats to its survival. Thus, when the Protestant movement began, Catholic leaders felt that reforms alone could halt this latest danger to the Church. They failed to recognize the deeper philosophical and religious issues that Protestantism raised. In 1536 Pope Paul III established a commission to find out why there was so much protest and what could be done about it. The resulting report, "Advice on the Reform of the Church," blamed church leaders, including popes, for many abuses. It also called for reforms that would convince the Protestants to rejoin the Church. The reforms undertaken as a result of the report were only partially carried out. During the early 1500's, the Church's financial problems had increased. These included inflation, invasions of the Papal States, and loss of church lands and revenue to the Protestants. Thus, the Church was unable to respond quickly and effectively to the Protestant threat. A Plan of Action By the 1540's the Catholic Church had decided on a program: it would introduce reforms and counterattack the Protestants. The counterattack came first. In 1542 the Inquisition was given full powers to uproot Protestantism in Italy. With this crackdown, the Pope's authority was restored all over the Italian peninsula. The papal triumph put an end to the Italian Renaissance. Italy's vigorous intellectual life was suppressed for the sake of conformity to the Church. The Church censored the press, which it saw as a threat to established order. In 1543 the Inquisition published the first Index of Prohibited Books, a list of written works banned by the Church. Isolated cases of censorship had existed before the mid-1500's. But the Inquisition's action was the first full-scale effort to limit or destroy a free press in Europe. Council of Trent One of the needs of the Church was to clearly state and defend Catholic teaching. In 1545 Pope Paul III called a council of bishops at Trent, Italy, to define official doctrine. The Council of Trent met in several sessions from 1545 to 1563. There was widespread hope that the Council would restore Christian unity, since Protestant representatives attended the sessions for a while. This goal was never realized because the Council took a hard line against Protestantism. Its goals were to strengthen the Catholic Church and restore the Pope's influence in church affairs. Catholic doctrine was strictly defined so that it could be clearly distinguished from Protestant teaching. Good works, as well as faith, were necessary for salvation. The Latin Vulgate Bible was made the only acceptable form of scripture. In addition, the Church hierarchy alone was to decide the interpretation of the Bible. The elaborate art and ritual of the Church were maintained, since they were considered inspirational for less educated Catholics who had little understanding of church teaching. The mass was to be said only in Latin. The Council, however, put an end to many church practices that reformers had criticized for centuries. The selling of indulgences was forbidden. Clergy were ordered to follow strict rules of behavior. Each diocese was to build a seminary, or a school to train priests. Much of the Pope's power over the Church in various western European lands was restored at t e expense of monarchs. Jesuits The Council of Trent was in many ways a declaration of war against Protestantism. Now, the Church was prepared to launch a missionary offensive against the Protestants to reclaim formerly Catholic lands. One of the Catholic reformers involved in this effort was Ignatius of Loyola. In 1521 he gave up his life as a Spanish noble to serve the Catholic Church. Ignatius developed a set of spiritual exercises to help people achieve inner peace. After a visit to Palestine, he decided to improve his education in order to preach more effectively. While in school, Ignatius organized a group of followers to spread Catholic teachings. In 1536 the group went to Rome determined to win souls, not by the sword, but by educating the young. In 1540 Ignatius and his followers founded the Society of Jesus, also known as the Jesuits. Jesuits wore the black robes of monks and lived simply. Organized along military lines, they were expected to show absolute obedience to the Pope. The Jesuits set up schools, helped the poor, and preached to the people. They taught in universities, worked as missionaries, and served as advisers in royal courts. The Jesuit order grew rapidly and became known as the "shock troops" of the Catholic Church. They worked hard to strengthen the faith of Catholics and to bring Protestants back to the Church. As a result of their efforts, the Church retained the loyalty of the people in such areas as southern Germany, Bohemia, Poland, and Hungary. 1. Identify: Pope Paul III, Index of Prohibited Books, Ignatius of Loyola, Jesuits. 2. Why was the Council of Trent called? What did it accomplish? 3. How did the Jesuits serve the Catholic Church? 5. The Age of Religious Wars By the mid-1500's, the Catholic Church had strengthened itself in opposition to Protestantism. At the same time, the Protestants secured their hold over much of Europe. Each side was ready to prove that its faith was superior. The result was a series of religious wars that swept across Europe from 1545 to 1600. Germany After the Diet of Worms in 1521, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V set out to crush Lutheranism in his domains. However, several factors prevented him from realizing this goal. First, Charles had little control over the German princes, all of whom jealously guarded their liberties. As a result, the emperor could never get effective support from the Catholic states to defeat the Lutherans. Even the Catholic princes feared Charles's power if he should end the Lutheran heresy. Second, the size of Charles Vs empire made it difficult for him to move effectively against the Lutherans. In addition to internal opposition, Charles had to face two powerful foreign enemies: France and the Ottoman Empire. Francis I of France repeatedly stirred up rebellions in Germany, and the Ottomans were a constant menace in the east. Thus, Charles was forced to stop fighting the Lutherans and to defend his borders. Finally, Charles V had money problems. Several times during his reign, he found himself short of funds while on the verge of a major victory. In an age of mercenaries, this problem was fatal and forced him to back down, allowing his enemies, especially France, to recover their strength. All of these factors forced Charles to pursue a relatively mild policy toward the Lutherans for several years. Then, in 1530, the Lutheran and Catholic princes failed to reconcile their differences in a meeting at the German town of Augsburg. After this failure, the Catholic majority pledged that it would suppress Lutheranism. The Lutherans, in turn, formed a defensive alliance known as the Schmalkaldic League. The Schmalkaldic League declared open resistance to the emperor in order to defend its interests. The formation of the League revealed the disunity of Germany and contributed to its further division. Matters were made worse when French and Ottoman threats forced Charles to come to terms with the League. As a result, Lutheranism was able to further expand its influence in Germany. Not until 1546 was ' Charles V able to fight the Schmalkaldic League. At that time, he won a decisive victory. However, the strength of the League prevented Charles from restoring the prestige of his throne or winning all of Germany back to Catholicism. Thus, Charles agreed in 1555 to the Peace of Augsburg, a religious compromise that gave each Catholic and Lutheran prince the right to choose the religion of his realm. Calvinists and Anabaptists; were excluded from the agreement. Anyone living in the territory of an opposing religion could move to another area. Therefore, thousands of refugees found themselves on the road searching for new homes. In the winter of 1555-1556, Charles V, worn out by his difficulties, gave up the throne. The family lands in Austria, as well as the title of Holy Roman Emperor, went to his brother Ferdinand. Charles's son, Philip II, inherited Spain, the Netherlands, parts of Italy, and the Hapsburg overseas possessions. The age of Charles V gave way to the age of Philip II and Spanish greatness. Philip's reign, which lasted from 1556 to 1598, saw him and Spain at the center of European events and the religious wars that dominated the period. Revolt of the Netherlands The Netherlands was one of the wealthiest trading and production areas in sixteenth-century Europe. It was a collection of 17 partially independent provinces. Charles V had been born in the Netherlands and was popular with its inhabitants. This remained the case even when he drained the area of money for wars and tried to impose his religious policies on it. Philip II, on the other hand, was bom and raised a Spaniard. He ruled the Netherlands with a heavy hand. Philip lived in Spain and never left his homeland after he became king in 1556. A devout Catholic, he claimed that he would rather "die a hundred deaths than rule over heretics." To advance the cause of Catholicism, Philip taxed the Netherlands to pay for Spain's religious wars. At this time, the Netherlands had large Lutheran, Anabaptist, and Calvinist minorities. Philip was determined to remove them from his domain. He brought the Inquisition to the Netherlands and strengthened the power of the Catholic clergy there. In 1566 angry Protestants in the Netherlands began a series of protests and riots. To restore order, Philip sent 10,000 Spanish troops to the troubled area. Led by the duke of Alba, they almost crushed the uprising. Calvinists were executed, churches were burned, and taxes were raised to levels damaging to trade. Many Calvinists survived and managed to gain control of several ports in the northern area known as Holland. When word of these Calvinist havens spread, more Calvinists arrived in the region. As a result, the people of Holland, known as the Dutch, became largely Protestant. The Dutch leader against the Spaniards was William Prince of Orange. William became known as "the Silent" because of his ability to hide his intentions. Although an undistinguished general, William was brave and patriotic. His selfless determination provided the revolt with what little unity it had. The Dutch fighting groups known as "Sea Beggars." They attacked the Spaniards by opening up sea dikes and literally flooding the enemy. Spanish attempts to crush the revolt of the "Sea Beggars" brought more support for the rebel cause. In 1581 the rebels finally deposed Philip as their ruler and declared an independent Dutch state in the northern provinces of the Netherlands. They failed, however, to win the largely Catholic south, which remained under Spanish rule. French Wars of Religion In the late 1500's, France was ruled by weak monarchs who allowed various groups to tear the country apart. Fighting developed between Catholics and Protestants. Besides the religious struggles, conflicts among nobles and revolts by the old feudal provinces revealed the decline of the French state. French Protestants, known as Huguenots, made up only 10 percent of the population. However, there were several factors which helped them withstand defeat for over 30 years. Many nobles skilled in government and military service were counted among their number. The Huguenots were located in fortified cities and were well organized. Also, the Catholic opposition was divided and less enthusiastic about its cause. For 30 years, Catholic and Huguenot armies marched across France destroying fields and homes. Philip II of Spain added to the disorder by actively supporting the Catholics. From 1562 to 1571, there were 18 massacres of Protestants, five massacres of Catholics, and over 30 assassinations in France. The French Wars of Religion consisted of seven conflicts with occasional periods of peace. The fighting was confused and often involved the slaughter of women and children. The most infamous event of the struggle was the Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre. On that day~ August 24, 1572-the Catholics of Paris suddenly attacked Huguenots, killing 3,000 of them. In 1588, the Catholic leader, Henry of Guise, was murdered by the king, Henry 111. Then, a few months later, a fanatical monk killed the king. The Huguenot leader, Henry of Navarre, finally inherited the throne in 1589. However, he was not allowed to become king of predominantly Catholic France because of his Protestant religion. Faced with Spanish threats, Henry decided to renounce Protestantism and become a Catholic in order to receive the French crown. Despite Henry's obvious political motives, most French people were willing to accept him as King Henry IV. They were tired of constant warfare and yearned for peace. To ensure stability, they were willing to submit to a strong monarchy. This attitude ushered in France's greatest period of royal power and splendor. 1. Identify: Schmalkaldic League, Peace of Augsburg, William of Orange, Sea Beggars, Huguenots, Henry IV. 2. What factors sparked religious conflict in the Netherlands? 3. What was the political outcome of the French Wars of Religion? --MS_Mac_OE_3144439306_3093788_MIME_Part Content-type: text/html; charset="US-ASCII" Content-transfer-encoding: quoted-printable Chapter 11*******Best One

Chapter Eleven

The Reformation



During the 1300's and 1400's, the Roman Catholic Church still held the loya= lty of almost all western Europeans.' However, its leaders failed to adjust = to the many social, economic, and political changes taking place in western = Europe. As a result, it suffered serious setbacks and lost much of its spiri= tual influence. Serious abuses continued in the administration of the Church= , and the clergy often placed worldly ambition ahead of their spiritual duti= es.

Around 1500, educated western Europeans were calling for a reformation, or = a change in the ways the Church 6ught and practiced Christianity. However, t= hey differed about the types of change needed. Conservative reformers wanted= to restore the Church's spiritual health while keeping the best of its medi= eval traditions. Radical reformers questioned basic Catholic teachings and p= ractices. They called for more preaching and a return to the simpler faith o= f the early Church. These differences led to a split in western Christianity= that has lasted to the present time. By 1600, western Europe and .the areas= of the world under its influence had many Christian churches. All of these = churches competed with each other for the faith of the people.

Cry for Reform

The 1300's and 1400"s in western Europe were still an "age of fai= th. People were filled with respect and awe for the power of God. Art, liter= ature, and architecture were generally concerned with religious themes. Alth= ough Renaissance scholars adopted secular attitudes, they avoided an open br= eak with the Church. For the common people, life was harsh. Disease, famine,= and war were continual threats.

The new learning of the Renaissance had little impact on the average Europe= an, whose knowledge of the natural world remained very limited. People often= felt helpless in the face of the difficult circumstances. The Church was fo= r many the only source of comfort in a seemingly dark and mysterious world. =

Church Abuses

During the Middle Ages, popes had acquired much power and wealth. With the = growth of papal authority, serious abuses appeared in the Church. One of the= abuses concerned money. The large administrative structure of medieval Cath= olicism was expensive to maintain. To acquire more funds, the clergy used ma= ny were unpopular and hurt' the' Church's spiritual fife. Fees were charged = for almost every kind of church service. Simony, or the selling of church po= sitions, was especially disliked since the price of buying an office was pas= sed on to the common people. In addition, one person would often hold severa= l church positions and never carry out any of the responsibilities. Along wi= th these abuses, the popes and higher clergy became increasingly accustomed = to living in luxury like secular princes. Their lifestyles further damaged p= ublic regard for the Church.

Church Councils

The Babylonian Captivity and the Great Schism aroused great resentment agai= nst the powers of the papacy. Many kings, princes, and church scholars calle= d for a reform of church government. The most popular remedy was a general c= hurch council. However, there were several problems with this solution. Firs= t, such councils were traditionally called by popes. No Pope was willing to = call a council that would limit his authority. Yet, the legality of a counci= l would be questionable if it did not receive papal approval. Second, differ= ent rulers in Europe supported particular popes for political reasons. Such = political divisions made it almost impossible to reach agreement on the site= of a council, not to mention the deeper issues involved. Finally, the quest= ion was raised: if the Pope could be deposed by a council, who was the real = head of the Church?

By 1400 many western Europeans were committed to the idea of a church counc= il, In 1417 a church council at Constance, Switzerland, ended the Great Schi= sm. The new Pope, Martin V, and his immediate successors restored papal auth= ority and limited the use of church councils. Still, the effects of the Grea= t Schism lingered and seriously undermined respect for the papacy.

John Wycliffe.

In the late 1300's, papal policies had been strongly opposed in England. Th= ere, an ' Oxford University scholar named John Wycliffe spoke out against th= e papacy. Claiming that the Bible was the sole authority for religious truth= , Wycliffe criticized the Church's wealth and its hierarchy of clergy. He wa= nted secular rulers to remove church officials who were immoral or corrupt. = He also called for an end to church ceremonies that were not mentioned in th= e Bible.

Wycliffe's most revolutionary act was translating the Bible from Latin into= English so that the common people could read it for themselves. Such an act= made it more difficult for the Church to keep its monopoly on religious tru= th. It also led Wycliffe's followers, known as Lollards, to develop a variet= y of biblical interpretations. To show their dislike of the Church, the more= radical Lollards destroyed the images of saints, ridiculed the Mass, and at= e communion bread with onions to show that it was no different from regular = bread.

Because of widespread anti-papal feelings, the government found it difficul= t to suppress the Lollards. Wycliffe himself was persuaded to moderate his v= iews and received only a mild punishment. He died peacefully in 1384, and hi= s beliefs continued to spread.

Many influential people in England supported the Lollards. They included Qu= een Anne, the wife of King Richard II. Born in Bohemia, Anne sent several co= pies of Wycliffe's writings to her homeland. There, his views became popular= .

Jan Hus

During the late 1300's and early 1400's, the Slavs of Bohemia, known as Cze= chs, strongly backed reforms in the Catholic Church. In addition, they becam= e aware of their own national identity and wanted to end German control of t= heir country. Czech religious and national grievances combined to produce an= explosive situation.

The Czechs began to criticize the corruption of leading church officials, m= any of whom were German. . They produced religious pamphlets and, copies of = the Bible in the Czech language rather than in Latin. The leader of the Czec= h reform movement was the popular.preacher and University professor Jan Hus.= The religious views of Hus were similar to those of Wycliffe. His writing a= nd preaching aroused anti-Church and anti-German feelings. When Hus and his = works were condemned by church and political leaders, a wave of demonstratio= ns and riots swept across Bohemia.

Hussite Wars Faced with the possibility of a full-scale rebellion against t= he Church, the Council at Constance in 1415 called Hus before it to defend h= is views. The Council gave the Czech reformer a promise of protection. It la= ter went back on its word and had Hus burned at the stake as a heretic. Inst= ead of depriving the Czechs of a leader, this act provided them with a hero = around whom they could rally. From 1420 to 1436, a series of battles known a= s the Hussite Wars took place in Bohemia between the supporters of Hus and t= he defenders of the Church.

During these wars, the Church, with the support of the Holy Roman Emperor, = launched five crusades against the Hussites, as the supporters of Hus were c= alled. All of the crusades failed. Hussite soldiers, mostly peasants, were b= rave fighters. They combined the new firearms technology with the ancient Bo= hemian tactic of forming defensive walls with farm wagons. The pro-Catholic = forces were unable to break the strength and determination of Hussites. Huss= ite armies pushed north into Germany, plundering towns and villages all the = way to the Baltic Sea.

Peace By 1436 the Church realized that it could not defeat the Hussites. Re= presentatives of the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor held talks with the Hus= site leaders. Their. aim was to keep Hussite beliefs from spreading beyond B= ohemia to other parts of Europe. The Hussites, not ready for a complete brea= k with Rome, were willing to compromise. The Church allowed them certain rel= igious liberties in return for allegiance to the Church. Although Hussite mi= litary expansion was checked, Hussite ideas spread throughout Europe to infl= uence later and more radical reformers.

1 . Identify: Martin V, John Wycliffe, Lollards, Bohemia, Jan Hus.

2. What abuses appeared in the late medieval Church?

3. What reforms did Wycliffe and Hus propose? How did their ideas influence= European society?


2 Martin Luther

In the early 1500's, a movement for church reform arose in Germany. It even= tually led to a permanent split in the western Church and produced a new for= m of Christianity known as Protestantism .  The series of events that g= ave birth to Protestantism is known as the Protestant Reformation.

Luther's Early Life

The Protestant Reformation was begun by a German named Martin Luther. Luthe= r, born in 1483, was the son of peasants. His family wanted him to be a lawy= er, but he was more interested in religion. In 1506 Luther was caught in a v= iolent thunderstorm and nearly hit by lightning. Terrified by this ordeal, h= e vowed that he would become a monk.

As a monk, Luther faithfully followed church teachings and practices. Yet h= e could find no peace of mind. He wondered how God would judge his actions a= nd if he would go to heaven when he died.  While studying the Bible, Lu= ther found the answer to questions that had been troubling him. He decided t= hat trusting in Jesus, rather than doing good works, would save people from = their sins. Through faith, people could be certain that God loved them and t= hat they would receive salvation. Luther later stated that because of this d= iscovery he felt as if he "had been born again and had entered Paradise= through wide open gates."

Conflict

In the following years, Luther's ideas quietly matured as h1v pursued a car= eer as a university professor. They eventually brought him into conflict wit= h the Church. ~ Pope Leo X, wanted money to rebuild St. Peter's Basilica in = Rome. In order to raise the necessary funds, he authorized the sale of indul= gences. These were documents issued by the Church that freed their owners fr= om time in purgatory. According to Catholic teaching, purgatory is a place o= f suffering in the life to come. There, people must be purified of their sin= s before going to heaven.

During the Middle Ages, the fear of purgatory strengthened the appeal of in= dulgences. Originally, indulgences had been granted to crusaders for their e= fforts in defending the faith. In time, they were sold to any of the faithfu= l who wanted them. The idea was that the money paid was a sign of repentance= and was made holy by being given to the Church. According to Catholic think= ing, this was a good practice. However, the Church abused ft by using it as = an easy way to raise money.

Indulgence sales were especially profitable in Germany. There, no strong ce= ntral government existed to hinder the Church's effort to raise money and ta= ke it out of the country. Such increased fund raising angered many Germans. = It made them more willing to listen to criticism of the Church.

The Church's agent for selling indulgences in northern Germany was John Tet= zel. Tetzel's method of raising money was somewhat questionable. He told the= local peasants that indulgences would relieve them of guilt for future sins= and immediately free relatives already in purgatory. He even had a little j= ingle: "As soon as coin in the coffer [offering box] rings, a soul from= purgatory springs."

Ninety-Five Theses Luther at the time was a university professor in the tow= n of Wittenberg. When asked about indulgences, he claimed that the practice = was wrong, since people could not buy God's forgiveness for their sins. Tetz= el denounced Luther's opinion about indulgences, and Luther took up the chal= lenge. On October 31, 1517, Luther nailed a placard to the door of the Witte= nberg Church. On the placard were 95 theses, or statements, that criticized = the sale of indulgences as well as other practices. Luther's purpose was to = stimulate debate within the Church. it was not to break away from the Church= . Nonetheless, the result was a full-scale religious revolt that permanently= destroyed Europe's religious unity.

Diet of Worms Copies of Luther's theses were printed and spread all over Ge= rmany, where they found a receptive audience. Indulgence sales fell drastica= lly, and church authorities in Rome became concerned. Papal representatives = arrived in Germany and tried to convince Luther to give up his ideas. At fir= st, Luther was open to some kind of understanding. But increasingly he found= himself defying the Church. What began as a simple debate over certain chur= ch practices had developed into a challenge to papal authority.

In 1521 Pope Leo X condemned Luther's ideas and cut him off from the Church= . Luther, however, had widespread support among the German people. With the = threat of a church schism in Germany, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V becam= e involved in the dispute. He feared that religious turmoil would endanger t= he peace and unity of his realm. Charles also needed the Pope's support in r= uling the Holy Roman Empire and in fighting wars against France. Therefore, = he acted to stop the spread of Luther's teachings. A council of German princ= es, the Diet of Worms, was called in 1521 to consider Luther's case as well = as other issues. At the council, the German princes, opposed to the emperor = and his policies, backed Luther. Charles was forced to call Luther to the Di= et to defend his views.

Luther's friends, fearing the emperor's treachery, urged him not to go. But= Luther was determined to go, "though there were as many devils in Worm= s as there are tfles on the roofs." His trip to Worms was like a triump= hal parade as crowds of people came out to see him. Then came the eventful m= eeting between the Diet and the monk. Luther walked into the crowded assembl= y hall. A papal repesentative stood next to a table stacked with Luther's wr= itings. He asked Luther if he would take back his teachings. Luther replied:=   I am bound by the Sacred Scriptures I have cited ... and my con= science is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and will not recant [take ba= ck] anything, for it is neither safe nor right to go against conscience. God= help me. Amen.*

Having defied church and empire, Luther was condemned as a heretic and an o= utlaw. Hurried out of Worms,, he was "ambushed" by his protector, = Prince Frederick of Saxony, and hid in a castle for protection. Luther dropp= ed out of public sight for a year. Meanwhile, his reformation spread rapidly= across Germany.


Rise of Lutheranism

After Worms, Luther made his final break with Rome and formed the first of = the Protestant faiths: Lutheranism. Lutherans, as the followers of Luther we= re called, did not claim that their faith was a new religion. In fact, it ha= d many of the same beliefs as Catholicism. However, Luther stressed several = teachings that distinguished his form of Christianity from the Catholic Chur= ch. These teachings were also followed by later Protestant groups.

The most important Protestant teaching developed by Luther was salvation by= faith alone. According to Luther, all of humanity is sinful in the eyes of = a holy qod. No amount of good works, therefore, can win God's approval for s= alvation; all that people can do to win salvation is trust in God's love and= mercy.

Luther's second important teaching was that religious truth and authority l= ie only in the Bible, not in the institutions of the Church. As a result, Lu= ther and other Protestant reformers simplified church doctrine and rituals t= o agree with New Testament practice. Instead of priests, Protestant religiou= s leaders were called ministers. They did not have the same religious powers= as Catholic priests, and they spent more time preaching from the Bible. Pro= testant worship services were held in the language of the area instead of in= Latin. In this way, people could easily understand and share in the service= s.

Luther also emphasized that the Church was not a hierarchy of clergy, but a= community of believers. There was no real difference, he stated, between th= e clergy and laity in the eyes of God. All useful occupations, not just the = priesthood or ministry, were important. They were vocations, or callings, in= which people could serve God and their neighbors. This view appealed especi= ally to merchants, traders, bankers, and artisans in the towns. Their concer= n for making profits had been regarded as unethical by the medieval Church. = However, by the 1500's they were involved in the commercial revolution sweep= ing Europe. Business people concerned with secular affairs were glad to find= a religious belief that gave respect to their occupations.


Spread of Lutheranism

A technological development that aided the Lutheran revolt was the printing= press. Printed copies of Luther's writings were spread far and wide in such= numbers that the Protestant movement could not be halted. By 1524 there wer= e 990 different books in print in Germany. Eighty percent of those were by L= uther and his followers. By 1546 there were some 100,000 copies of Luther's = German translation of the Bible in circulation. Catholic writers in Germany = tried to respond to Luther. But they were not as successful as the Lutherans= in presenting their arguments and winning public support.

By the mid-1500's, northern Germany was mostly Lutheran. Southern Germany r= emained Catholic, but even there Lutheranism had made solid gains. There wer= e many reasons why Germans in large numbers supported Lutheranism. One reaso= n was undoubtedly religious conviction. However, non-religious factors also = were involved.

German princes often accepted Luther's teachings in order to increase their= own power. They made Lutheranism the state religion of their territories, p= lacing it under their protection and control. They also seized lands and wea= lth owned by the Catholic Church. Townspeople also rallied to the new faith,= which agreed with their business principles and practices. Peasants and lab= orers adopted Lutheranism as a form of protest against the traditionally Cat= holic ruling classes. Above all, many Germans saw Lutheranism as an opportun= ity to defy an Italian-controlled Catholic Church that drained so much money= from Germany.

With a strong base in Germany, the Lutherans were able to spread their doct= rine to other lands. Germany was situated in the geographic and economic cen= ter of Europe. German merchants carried religious ideas as well as trade goo= ds " all over the continent. From northern Germany,  Lutheranism s= pread to the Scandinavian lands.  The monarchs of Denmark and Sweden br= oke with Rome and established Lutheran state churches in their territories.'= Luther's ideas also contributed to religious ferment in France, England, an= d the Netherlands.


Luther's Achievement

As Lutheranism spread, Luther tried to direct his religious movement so tha= t it would not stray from the truth as he saw it. Thus, Luther often denounc= ed Protestant leaders more radical than himself. To protect his movement, he= also spoke out on political issues. One of Luther's most controversial poli= tical stands concerned a major peasant revolt that erupted in Germany in 152= 5. Luther saw the German princes as vital to the survival of the Reformation= and thus sided with them against the peasants.

Luther died in 1546 at the age of 63. By this time, the Protestant movement= had grown too large for him to control. Luther's belief that all people had= the right to read and understand the Bible led to a variety of biblical int= erpretations. New religious viewpoints emerged that were more radical than L= uther would have liked. Meanwhile, Luther's hope for the peaceful conversion= of Europe to Protestantism was often thwarted by fierce religious hatreds. = In many European towns and villages, heated debates and riots often accompan= ied the removal of the Catholic clergy. Mounting fears of social disorder ke= pt many people loyal to Rome who otherwise would have accepted Protestantism= .

Nevertheless, Luther's achievement was significant. As the first Protestant= reformer, he had one foot in the past while shaping the future. Despite his= opposition to the papacy, he held a largely medieval view of the world. How= ever, his break with Rome shattered Christian unity in western Europe and op= ened the way for a different kind of European society. With the loss of a co= mmon religious viewpoint, western Europeans were able to create new ideas ab= out the world that still shape western civilization today.

1 .    Identify: Martin Luther, 95 theses, Pope Leo X, Diet = of Worms, Frederick of Saxony.

2.    Why did Luther post the 95 theses? What impact did his= action have on the religious life of western Europe?
       What were the beliefs of Luther'= s movement?

4.    Why did people support (or reject) Lutheranism?



3    Protestant Growth and Division

The Catholic Church kept western Europe united under one religion for 1,000= years. Protestant unity lasted only about five years.

Several reasons were responsible for divisions within Protestantism. First,= Luther's successful challenge to the Catholic Church made it easier for oth= er reformers to carry out their goals. Second, the printing press and-the ve= rnacular translations of the Bible allowed more people to read and interpret= scripture on their own. As a result of these factors, a number of religious= groups developed from Luther's reformation.

Huldreich Zwingli

After the rise of Lutheranism, preachers and merchants in Switzerland separ= ated from Rome and set up churches known as Reformed. One of the most import= ant Reformed leaders was Huldreich Zwingli. Born in 1482, Zwingli differed f= rom Luther in background and outlook. While Luther was a monk educated in th= e medieval tradition, Zwingh was an urban scholar trained in humanism. As a = result, he was more optimistic than Luther about human nature and placed mor= e value on the achievements of the non-Christian, classical civilizations. <= BR>
Swiss Refortnation Zwingli supported a religious reformation based entirely= on the Bible. In 1518 he became a preacher in the Swiss city of Zurich, an = important trading center. Zwingli followed Luther's example and spoke out ag= ainst the sale of indulgences. He also publicly denounced other church abuse= s and thus began the Swiss Reformation.

Like Luther, Zwingli stressed the importance of faith and denied many Catho= lic beliefs and practices, such as purgatory, monasteries, and celibacy. Zwi= ngli's goal, unlike Luther's, was to break completely with Catholic traditio= n. His plan for doing this was to establish a theocracy, or church-run state= , in Zurich. By 1525 Zwingh had succeeded in this objective. The Catholic ma= ss was banned, and Protestantism enforced. Worship services were conducted i= n the vernacular. They consisted of sermons and Bible readings. Despite his = personal love of music, Zwingli forbade its use in worship. He even smashed = church organs. Religious images, which Zwingli regarded as idols, were destr= oyed. Communion was served in a wooden bowl instead of a silver chalice. Mon= asteries were closed or turned into hospitals and schools.

Although not persecuted, Catholics had to pay fines for attending illegal m= asses and eating fish on Fridays (a common Catholic practice). They were als= o excluded from public office. City officials and clergy closely supervised = the morals of Zurich's residents. This emphasis on strict personal behavior = was later carried over into other Protestant movements.

Religious Warfare By 1528 Zwinglfs Reformed church had won the support of n= orthern Switzerland; the southern part of the country, however, remained Cat= holic. Zwingh feared Catholic enemies to the north and south of Zurich. He p= repared Zurich for war, trying to unite with the German Lutherans against th= e Catholics. The proposed alliance between the two Protestant groups never o= ccurred because of theological disagreements.

Reformed missionary activity in the Catholic areas of Switzerland finally l= ed to war in 1531. Zwingli and his force of 1,500 were destroyed by an army = of 8,000 Catholics. An uneasy truce between Swiss Protestants and Catholics = followed. Although defeated in battle, Zwingh left a solid religious foundat= ion that ensured the survival of Swiss Protestantism.


John Calvin

In the mid-1500's, the most powerful and influential Reformed group develop= ed in the Swiss city of Geneva. There, John Calvin, a French reformer, set u= p a theocracy similar to that of Zurich.

Early Life Born in 1509, Calvin grew up in Catholic France as the first wav= es of the Reformation hit Europe. Although Protestantism was banned in Franc= e, its ideas still filtered across the border from Germany and had an impact= on French thinkers. Unlike Luther, who was tormented by the problems of fai= th, Calvin was a much calmer individual. He seemed to have had few self-doub= ts and was known for his logical approach to religious issues.

Calvin received a good education in theology, law, and humanism. This backg= round prompted him to read the Bible more carefully. He seems to have had a = religious conversion in 1533 as a result of humanist influences and without = the inner turmoil that had driven Luther to a similar conversion.

Beliefs The cornerstone of Calvin's theology was God's all-encompassing pow= er and knowledge. According to Calvin, there was nothing in the past, presen= t, or future that God did not know or control. He also held that from the be= ginning of time God decided who would be saved and who would be condemned fo= r eternity. This doctrine-that God determines the fate of every human being-= is known as predestination. Calvin used scripture and local argument to supp= ort this belief.

Calvin put forth his religious views in his book the Institutes of the Chri= stian Religion, published in its final form in 1559. It was one of the most = popular books of its day and influenced religious reformers in western Europ= e and North America.

Geneva Calvin went beyond words in trying to advance his religion. In 1536 = he took control of the Swiss city of Geneva. At the time, Geneva was in econ= omic decline and known for its moral corruption. Calvin tried to turn the ci= ty into a model religious community. His reforms met stiff resistance. The r= eformer was forced to leave Geneva for a while before being persuaded to res= ume his work. It took Calvin 20 years to complete the reformation of the cit= y.

Under Calvin's reforms, the city government still functioned. But the Consi= story, a church council of 12 elders, exercised real power over the daffy li= ves of the people. All citizens were considered members of the Reformed fait= h and were required to attend church services three or four times a week. Su= ch acts as fighting, swearing, drunkenness, gambling, card playing, and danc= ing were outlawed. Members of the Consistory made annual inspections of home= s to ensure that moral values were upheld. Punishments in Geneva were harsh,= with 58 executions between 1542 and 1564. Most of these were for holding Ca= tholic beliefs or practicing witchcraft. Given such a strict atmosphere, Gen= eva became known as the "City of the Saints." It attracted reforme= rs from all parts of Europe and became the leading center of Protestant lear= ning.

Calvinism John Calvin's teaching, known as Calvinism, became the most popul= ar form of Protestantism outside of the Lutheran strongholds of Germany and = Scandinavia. Calvinists, as John Calvin's followers were called, later contr= olled the countries of the Netherlands, Scotland, and England.

Unlike Lutheranism, Calvinism was not linked to a particular nation or form= of government. It also had no strong backing from royalty and princes. As a= result, Calvinism received widespread support among the common people who d= isliked the old medieval social structure of Europe.

Of all the Protestant groups, the Calvinists were the most dynamic and miss= ionary-minded. They spread their faith to new areas. As a result of this zea= l, they often faced intense persecution. What supported them during these di= fficulties was the belief that they were God's elect, or chosen people. The = Calvinists were also helped by their form of church government. Calvinist ch= urch organization was based on local councils of ministers and elected churc= h members. Because of its partially democratic nature, the organization gave= participants a stake in its welfare and inspired their loyalty. Since power= was distributed among many people, it was harder for enemies to eliminate a= few leaders and destroy the movement.

Calvin himself preached obedience to civil authority unless religious convi= ction forced disobedience. However, he cautioned against open resistance. Go= d alone, he said, would punish evil rulers. Some Calvinists preferred to ign= ore Calvin's instruction. John Knox, the fiery leader of the Reformation in = Scotland, preached the right of moral people to overthrow wicked princes. Ot= her Calvinists were proclaiming that the rights of the people came before th= ose of monarchs. Thus, Calvinism became a dynamic social force in western Eu= rope. Eventually, it contributed to the birth of the early revolutionary mov= ements of the western world.


Protestant Radicals

Once the religious monopoly of the Catholic Church was broken, Protestant l= eaders had to decide how far they should carry out the Reformation. Luther, = Zwingh, and Calvin, despite significant religious differences, shared a comm= on set of beliefs. Among these beliefs were obedience to government authorit= y and respect for the existing social order.

Some reformers, however, demanded more changes and split with the conservat= ive leadership of the Reformation. As a result, numerous religious sects eme= rged in western Europe apart from the established churches. Although their b= eliefs differed in detail from one another, these sects were included togeth= er under the name of Anabaptists. They received this name because they share= d in common the practice of baptizing, or admitting into the Church, only ad= ult members.  The Catholic and the established Protestant churches admi= tted infants into church membership. The Anabaptists disagreed with this tra= ditional practice, claiming that people must be able to make a free choice w= hether or not to be Christians.

The Anabaptists were more deeply involved in social unrest than the other P= rotestant groups. The 1500's saw economic difficulties resulting from rising= population and inflation. Peasants, artisans, and miners were especially af= fected. It was they who in large numbers joined the Anabaptists in hope of a= better world.

Most Anabaptists honored the Bible as the Word of God. But they also believ= ed that God spoke directly to the human soul. As a result of this belief, An= abaptists often denied the right of civil governments to direct their lives.= They refused to hold office, bear arms, or swear oaths. Thus, the Anabaptis= t movements were regarded with suspicion by government authorities.

Still, most Anabaptists led quiet, peaceful Christian lives. They did not o= penly resist the authorities. Like the earliest Christians, they helped each= other and often held property in common. A few, however, went to extremes i= n interpreting the Bible literally. They tended to separate themselves from = the rest of society which they saw as sinful.

In spite of their peaceful ways, the Anabaptists were often persecuted. The= y were forced to -migrate throughout Europe. In the process, they spread the= ir beliefs throughout Switzerland, Germany, and the Netherlands. In certain = areas, the Anabaptist movement turned violent as it accepted revolutionary i= deas popular among German and Dutch peasants. The climax of this development= occurred in the German city of Munster in the early 1530's.

In Munster, radical Anabaptists seized power. They combined religious fanat= icism with a reign of terror that tarnished the reputation of other Anabapti= sts for years. All books but the Bible were burned. Property was held in com= mon, and polygamy was enforced. John Bockleson, the leader, ruled with a lav= ish court. He assured his poorer followers that they too would eat from gold= plates and silver tables in the near future.

So alarming was this spectacle that Lutherans and Catholics combined forces= to crush it.  The disciplined resistance of the Anabaptists led to a y= ear long siege. The city was finally betrayed, and the Anabaptist leaders ki= lled. An intense persecution of Anabaptists followed. Thousands were killed,= and the survivors were hounded from place to place.

Years later, Anabaptist groups would leave Europe for North America. There,= they would have a profound influence in shaping two important modern ideas:= religious toleration and the separation of church and state.


English Reformation

On the eve of the Reformation, the monarchs of France, Spain, and England h= ad assumed increasing control over the Catholic Church within their lands. A= s a result, these rulers had few grievances against the Pope. They, however,= were hostile to the Protestant Reformation since it threatened their contro= l of religious affairs. Because of their strength, these monarchs were able = to limit the spread of Protestantism among the lower classes of their kingdo= ms. Yet, the Protestant movement was eventually welcomed in England as a res= ult of a political quarrel between the Tudor king, Henry VIII, and the Pope.=


Break With Rome

Trouble between Henry VIII and the Pope began in 1526. Henry needed a son t= o succeed him to the throne. He feared that without a male heir, England mig= ht plunge into a civil war similar to that of the Wars of the Roses. Henry's= wife, Catherine of Aragon, had one child, Mary. Now that Catherine was olde= r, Henry feared she could no longer have children. Thus, he wanted his marri= age ended so he could find a new wife to bear him a son.

Catherine of Aragon was the aunt of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. Charl= es wanted his aunt to remain as queen of England in order to influence the c= ountry's policies in favor of the Hapsburgs. Charles was, the protector of t= he Pope, who had the power to grant or refuse Henry's request for an end to = the marriage. As a result of Hapsburg pressure, the Pope rejected Henry's re= quest.

Meanwhile, Henry had fallen in love with Anne Boleyn, a young woman of the = court. He decided to act on his own to end his marriage with Catherine and t= o marry Anne. To carry out this plan, Henry, in 1533, started to break Engla= nd's ties with the Catholic Church. He did this gradually with the backing o= f Parliament. In using Parliament Henry wanted to show that his
actions were the will of the English people rather than his own whim. Money= was no longer sent to Rome, church courts were closed, and Henry was given = more authority over the English clergy. In 1534 Parliament finally passed a = law
that separated the Church of England from Rome and made Henry head of the E= nglish Church.

The average churchgoer in England noticed very little difference in the Eng= lish Church's beliefs and practices as a result of the split with Rome. The = Church of England maintained the Catholic faith while denying the Pope. Cons= equently, most English people accepted it willingly since there were no dras= tic changes.

Devout Catholics, however, opposed the break with Rome. The most noted of t= hem was Sir Thomas More, the humanist scholar. Accused of high treason, More= was condemned by a royal court and beheaded in 1535.

Protestant England When Henry VIII died, his 9-year-old son became King Edw= ard VI.1 Since Edward was too young to rule, a council of lords governed Eng= land for him. Most of the council members were Protestants, and they brought= Protestant doctrines into the English Church.

Upon Edward's death in 1553, Henry's daughter Mary became queen. A devout C= atholic, Mary I restored Roman Catholicism, insisting that all her subjects = acknowledge the Pope. When many Protestants refused, she began to persecute = them. The English people turned against her, calling her "Bloody Mary.&= quot; Many people became solid supporters of Protestantism as a result of Ma= ry's persecution.

Mary I died in 1558 without a child to succeedher. Her half sister Elizabet= h became queen. Elizabeth I was Protestant and, with the help of Parliament,= ended the Pope's authority in the English Church. To unite her people, both= Catholics and Protestants, Elizabeth decided that the English Church should= be Protestant, but with some Catholic features. The monarch would be head o= f the Church, which would teach Protestant beliefs. At the same time, howeve= r, bishops would handle daily affairs as they did in the Catholic Church. Ma= ny rituals would also be similar to those of the Catholic Church.

Most English people were pleased with Anghcanism, as this blend of Protesta= nt belief and Catholic practice was called. The few groups of Catholics who = were not pleased remained outside the English Church. Some groups of Protest= ants also opposed Elizabeth's Church, but they did not leave it. Because the= y wanted to "purify" the-English Church of Catholic ways, they bec= ame known as Puritans.

The English Reformation was important for two reasons. First, it made Engla= nd the leading defender of Protestantism. English support helped preserve Pr= otestantism from possible extinction during a series of religious wars in th= e late 1500's. Second, the Puritans in the English Church became influential= by the early 1600's. As a result of their Calvinist principles, they oppose= d strong royal authority and wanted to extend the rights of Parliament. Puri= tan ideas eventually contributed to the rise and spread of democracy in Engl= and and North America.


4    The Catholic Reformation

While Protestantism triumphed in northern Europe, it had limited success in= other parts of the continent. Spain and France, the two most powerful Europ= ean monarchies, remained Catholic. Catholicism also remained strong in Italy= , Portugal, Hungary, Poland, and southern Germany.

Although Catholicism had many strongholds, it was still threatened by the g= rowth of the Protestant Reformation. To meet the Protestant challenge, Catho= lic reformers worked to improve their Church. Through this "Counter Ref= ormation," the Catholic Church eliminated many abuses, clearly defined = its theology, and reestablished the Pope's authority over its members.


First Efforts

Since the middle Ages, the Catholic Church periodically had faced criticism= of abuses in its teachings and practices. Several times, reform movements l= oyal to the Church had made improvements and restored its spiritual life. As= a result of their efforts, the Church was able to overcome threats to its s= urvival. Thus, when the Protestant movement began, Catholic leaders felt tha= t reforms alone could halt this latest danger to the Church. They failed to = recognize the deeper philosophical and religious issues that Protestantism r= aised.

In 1536 Pope Paul III established a commission to find out why there was so= much protest and what could be done about it. The resulting report, "A= dvice on the Reform of the Church," blamed church leaders, including po= pes, for many abuses. It also called for reforms that would convince the Pro= testants to rejoin the Church.

The reforms undertaken as a result of the report were only partially carrie= d out. During the early 1500's, the Church's financial problems had increase= d. These included inflation, invasions of the Papal States, and loss of chur= ch lands and revenue to the Protestants. Thus, the Church was unable to resp= ond quickly and effectively to the Protestant threat.


A Plan of Action

By the 1540's the Catholic Church had decided on a program: it would introd= uce reforms and counterattack the Protestants. The counterattack came first.= In 1542 the Inquisition was given full powers to uproot Protestantism in It= aly. With this crackdown, the Pope's authority was restored all over the Ita= lian peninsula.

The papal triumph put an end to the Italian Renaissance. Italy's vigorous i= ntellectual life was suppressed for the sake of conformity to the Church. Th= e Church censored the press, which it saw as a threat to established order. = In 1543 the Inquisition published the first Index of Prohibited Books, a lis= t of written works banned by the Church. Isolated cases of censorship had ex= isted before the mid-1500's. But the Inquisition's action was the first full= -scale effort to limit or destroy a free press in Europe.

Council of Trent One of the needs of the Church was to clearly state and de= fend Catholic teaching. In 1545 Pope Paul III called a council of bishops at= Trent, Italy, to define official doctrine. The Council of Trent met in seve= ral sessions from 1545 to 1563. There was widespread hope that the Council w= ould restore Christian unity, since Protestant representatives attended the = sessions for a while. This goal was never realized because the Council took = a hard line against Protestantism. Its goals were to strengthen the Catholic= Church and restore the Pope's influence in church affairs.

Catholic doctrine was strictly defined so that it could be clearly distingu= ished from Protestant teaching. Good works, as well as faith, were necessary= for salvation. The Latin Vulgate Bible was made the only acceptable form of= scripture. In addition, the Church hierarchy alone was to decide the interp= retation of the Bible. The elaborate art and ritual of the Church were maint= ained, since they were considered inspirational for less educated Catholics = who had little understanding of church teaching. The mass was to be said onl= y in Latin.

The Council, however, put an end to many church practices that reformers ha= d criticized for centuries. The selling of indulgences was forbidden. Clergy= were ordered to follow strict rules of behavior. Each diocese was to build = a seminary, or a school to train priests. Much of the Pope's power over the = Church in various western European lands was restored at t e expense of mona= rchs.

Jesuits The Council of Trent was in many ways a declaration of war against = Protestantism. Now, the Church was prepared to launch a missionary offensive= against the Protestants to reclaim formerly Catholic lands. One of the Cath= olic reformers involved in this effort was Ignatius of Loyola. In 1521 he ga= ve up his life as a Spanish noble to serve the Catholic Church. Ignatius dev= eloped a set of spiritual exercises to help people achieve inner peace. Afte= r a visit to Palestine, he decided to improve his education in order to prea= ch more effectively. While in school, Ignatius organized a group of follower= s to spread Catholic teachings. In 1536 the group went to Rome determined to= win souls, not by the sword, but by educating the young.

In 1540 Ignatius and his followers founded the Society of Jesus, also known= as the Jesuits. Jesuits wore the black robes of monks and lived simply. Org= anized along military lines, they were expected to show absolute obedience t= o the Pope. The Jesuits set up schools, helped the poor, and preached to the= people. They taught in universities, worked as missionaries, and served as = advisers in royal courts.

The Jesuit order grew rapidly and became known as the "shock troops&qu= ot; of the Catholic Church. They worked hard to strengthen the faith of Cath= olics and to bring Protestants back to the Church. As a result of their effo= rts, the Church retained the loyalty of the people in such areas as southern= Germany, Bohemia, Poland, and Hungary.

1. Identify: Pope Paul III, Index of Prohibited Books, Ignatius of Loyola, = Jesuits.

2. Why was the Council of Trent called? What did it accomplish?

3. How did the Jesuits serve the Catholic Church?



5. The Age of Religious Wars

By the mid-1500's, the Catholic Church had strengthened itself in oppositio= n to Protestantism. At the same time, the Protestants secured their hold ove= r much of Europe. Each side was ready to prove that its faith was superior. = The result was a series of religious wars that swept across Europe from 1545= to 1600.


Germany

After the Diet of Worms in 1521, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V set out t= o crush Lutheranism in his domains. However, several factors prevented him f= rom realizing this goal. First, Charles had little control over the German p= rinces, all of whom jealously guarded their liberties. As a result, the empe= ror could never get effective support from the Catholic states to defeat the= Lutherans. Even the Catholic princes feared Charles's power if he should en= d the Lutheran heresy.

Second, the size of Charles Vs empire made it difficult for him to move eff= ectively against the Lutherans. In addition to internal opposition, Charles = had to face two powerful foreign enemies: France and the Ottoman Empire. Fra= ncis I of France repeatedly stirred up rebellions in Germany, and the Ottoma= ns were a constant menace in the east. Thus, Charles was forced to stop figh= ting the Lutherans and to defend his borders.

Finally, Charles V had money problems. Several times during his reign, he f= ound himself short of funds while on the verge of a major victory. In an age= of mercenaries, this problem was fatal and forced him to back down, allowin= g his enemies, especially France, to recover their strength.

All of these factors forced Charles to pursue a relatively mild policy towa= rd the Lutherans for several years. Then, in 1530, the Lutheran and Catholic= princes failed to reconcile their differences in a meeting at the German to= wn of Augsburg. After this failure, the Catholic majority pledged that it wo= uld suppress Lutheranism. The Lutherans, in turn, formed a defensive allianc= e known as the Schmalkaldic League.

The Schmalkaldic League declared open resistance to the emperor in order to= defend its interests. The formation of the League revealed the disunity of = Germany and contributed to its further division. Matters were made worse whe= n French and Ottoman threats forced Charles to come to terms with the League= . As a result, Lutheranism was able to further expand its influence in Germa= ny.

Not until 1546 was ' Charles V able to fight the Schmalkaldic League. At th= at time, he won a decisive victory. However, the strength of the League prev= ented Charles from restoring the prestige of his throne or winning all of Ge= rmany back to Catholicism. Thus, Charles agreed in 1555 to the Peace of Augs= burg, a religious compromise that gave each Catholic and Lutheran prince the= right to choose the religion of his realm. Calvinists and Anabaptists; were= excluded from the agreement. Anyone living in the territory of an opposing = religion could move to another area. Therefore, thousands of refugees found = themselves on the road searching for new homes.

In the winter of 1555-1556, Charles V, worn out by his difficulties, gave u= p the throne. The family lands in Austria, as well as the title of Holy Roma= n Emperor, went to his brother Ferdinand. Charles's son, Philip II, inherite= d Spain, the Netherlands, parts of Italy, and the Hapsburg overseas possessi= ons.

The age of Charles V gave way to the age of Philip II and Spanish greatness= . Philip's reign, which lasted from 1556 to 1598, saw him and Spain at the c= enter of European events and the religious wars that dominated the period. <= BR>

Revolt of the Netherlands

The Netherlands was one of the wealthiest trading and production areas in s= ixteenth-century Europe. It was a collection of 17 partially independent pro= vinces.

Charles V had been born in the Netherlands and was popular with its inhabit= ants. This remained the case even when he drained the area of money for wars= and tried to impose his religious policies on it. Philip II, on the other h= and, was bom and raised a Spaniard. He ruled the Netherlands with a heavy ha= nd.

Philip lived in Spain and never left his homeland after he became king in 1= 556. A devout Catholic, he claimed that he would rather "die a hundred = deaths than rule over heretics." To advance the cause of Catholicism, P= hilip taxed the Netherlands to pay for Spain's religious wars. At this time,= the Netherlands had large Lutheran, Anabaptist, and Calvinist minorities. P= hilip was determined to remove them from his domain. He brought the Inquisit= ion to the Netherlands and strengthened the power of the Catholic clergy the= re.

In 1566 angry Protestants in the Netherlands began a series of protests and= riots. To restore order, Philip sent 10,000 Spanish troops to the troubled = area. Led by the duke of Alba, they almost crushed the uprising. Calvinists = were executed, churches were burned, and taxes were raised to levels damagin= g to trade.

Many Calvinists survived and managed to gain control of several ports in th= e northern area known as Holland. When word of these Calvinist havens spread= , more Calvinists arrived in the region. As a result, the people of Holland,= known as the Dutch, became largely Protestant. The Dutch leader against the= Spaniards was William Prince of Orange. William became known as "the S= ilent" because of his ability to hide his intentions. Although an undis= tinguished general, William was brave and patriotic. His selfless determinat= ion provided the revolt with what little unity it had.

The Dutch fighting groups known as "Sea Beggars." They attacked t= he Spaniards by opening up sea dikes and literally flooding the enemy. Spani= sh attempts to crush the revolt of the "Sea Beggars" brought more = support for the rebel cause. In 1581 the rebels finally deposed Philip as th= eir ruler and declared an independent Dutch state in the northern provinces = of the Netherlands. They failed, however, to win the largely Catholic south,= which remained under Spanish rule.


French Wars of Religion

In the late 1500's, France was ruled by weak monarchs who allowed various g= roups to tear the country apart. Fighting developed between Catholics and Pr= otestants. Besides the religious struggles, conflicts among nobles and revol= ts by the old feudal provinces revealed the decline of the French state.
French Protestants, known as Huguenots, made up only 10 percent of the popu= lation. However, there were several factors which helped them withstand defe= at for over 30 years. Many nobles skilled in government and military service= were counted among their number. The Huguenots were located in fortified ci= ties and were well organized. Also, the Catholic opposition was divided and = less enthusiastic about its cause.

For 30 years, Catholic and Huguenot armies marched across France destroying= fields and homes. Philip II of Spain added to the disorder by actively supp= orting the Catholics. From 1562 to 1571, there were 18 massacres of Protesta= nts, five massacres of Catholics, and over 30 assassinations in France.

The French Wars of Religion consisted of seven conflicts with occasional pe= riods of peace. The fighting was confused and often involved the slaughter o= f women and children. The most infamous event of the struggle was the Saint = Bartholomew's Day Massacre. On that day~ August 24, 1572-the Catholics of Pa= ris suddenly attacked Huguenots, killing 3,000 of them.

In 1588, the Catholic leader, Henry of Guise, was murdered by the king, Hen= ry 111. Then, a few months later, a fanatical monk killed the king. The Hugu= enot leader, Henry of Navarre, finally inherited the throne in 1589. However= , he was not allowed to become king of predominantly Catholic France because= of his Protestant religion. Faced with Spanish threats, Henry decided to re= nounce Protestantism and become a Catholic in order to receive the French cr= own.

Despite Henry's obvious political motives, most French people were willing = to accept him as King Henry IV. They were tired of constant warfare and year= ned for peace. To ensure stability, they were willing to submit to a strong = monarchy. This attitude ushered in France's greatest period of royal power a= nd splendor.

1.    Identify: Schmalkaldic League, Peace of Augsburg, Will= iam of Orange, Sea Beggars, Huguenots, Henry IV.

2.    What factors sparked religious conflict in the Netherl= ands?

3.    What was the political outcome of the French Wars of R= eligion?

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