Chapter Seven
Medieval Europe
The Middle Ages began in western Europe about 500 A.D. At this time, German=
ic
peoples controlled many of the lands that once belonged to the Roman Empire=
of the West. Classical civilization had -nearly disappeared. Roads an=
d bridges fell into disrepair. Trade and city life declined. Most people liv=
ed in the country and knew little about life beyond their villages. As a res=
ult of this decline, the medieval period, especially the early Middle Ages f=
rom 500 to 1000 A.D., has often been called the "Dark Ages."
Today, historians who write about the Middle Ages see its positive aspects.=
Greco-Roman culture, Christian faith, and Germanic practices were gradually=
combined to form a new western European civilization. After 1000 A.D. the p=
olitical, economic, and cultural life of western Europe began to move forwar=
d. New ideas, institutions, and social groups emerged that laid the foundati=
on of modern western civilization.
Early Middle Ages
The Germanic peoples who invaded the Roman Empire in the 400'S A.D. were ma=
de up of many groups. Each group developed differently. The Vandals, Visigot=
hs, Ostrogoths, and Burgundians set up kingdoms in the heavily populated Med=
iterranean areas of Europe. Because of their geographical closeness to Rome,=
these groups accepted many Roman ways. However, none of these kingdoms last=
ed very long. By 800 A.D. they had either been absorbed by local populations=
or conquered by outside invaders.
Germanic groups also settled in northwestern Europe, not far from their hom=
elands in Germany. One of these groups, known as Franks, moved into the area=
s that are now France and West Germany. Others called Angles, Saxons, and Ju=
tes took over most of Britain. These northern peoples were farther from Rome=
and less influenced by Roman culture. This helped them preserve their Germa=
nic customs. They lived in thinly populated areas that were less attractive =
to outside invaders. As a result, their kingdoms lasted and eventually becam=
e the most powerful states of medieval Europe.
Conversion of Europe
After the fall of Rome in 476 A.D., the Roman Catholic Church emerged as th=
e most important institution in western Europe. With the end of the line of =
western Roman emperors, the bishop of Rome, now called the Pope, became the =
leading political figure in Italy. He was also acknowledged as the spiritual=
leader of Christianity by all of the churches of western Europe. The Pope b=
ased his authority on the traditional belief that Peter the Apostle, the fir=
st bishop of Rome, had been chosen by Christ to be head of the Church. When =
Peter died, the authority Christ gave him was passed on to his successors. M=
onasteries In spite of its organizational strength, Catholic Christianity ha=
d been weakened by the Germanic invasions. Many areas had lost their churche=
s and priests. Also, many western Europeans were not yet Catholic Christians=
. Led by the Pope, church leaders worked to rebuild the Church and to conver=
t Germanic peoples to the Catholic faith. Their major support in these effor=
ts to strengthen the Church came from the monasteries.
Monasteries had first emerged during the late Roman Empire. They were forme=
d by devout Christians seeking to lead a holy life apart from worldly cares.=
In 520 A.D. a Roman official named Benedict established a monastery at Mont=
e Cassino in Italy. To organize his community, Benedict drew up a list of re=
gulations that later became known as the Benedictine Rule.
Under the Benedictine Rule, monks were required to be celibate, or unmarrie=
d, and to lead simple lives . They were closely supervised by an abbot, or m=
onastery head. Their most important duties were religious worship and prayer=
. Monks also performed manual labor.
The Rule proved successful and was soon adopted by other monasteries in wes=
tern Europe. Benedictine monasteries played an important role in medieval so=
ciety. They became model center s of Christian living. Monks operated school=
s and cared for poor people and travelers. They built sturdy stone bui=
ldings and introduced new methods of farming. By caring for old manuscripts,=
monks ensured the survival of western learning.
Missionaries
Monasteries became the principal centers of missionary =
activity. In 597 A.D. Pope Gregory I sent Benedictine monks to southern Brit=
ain , where they converted Anglo-Saxons to Catholic Christianity. From Brita=
in, Anglo-Saxon missionaries carried Roman Catholicism to pagan, or non-Chri=
stian, groups in northern Germany. The missionaries also organized the churc=
hes of the Franks and preached loyalty to the Pope in Rome.
During the sixth and seventh centuries, monasteries in Ireland sent mission=
aries throughout the North Atlantic area and western Europe. The Irish Churc=
h, however, was isolated from Rome. Its missionary monks won many converts, =
but they were not as well-organized as the Benedictines. By 700 A.D., the Ir=
ish were in closer contact to Rome. They, along with other western Europeans=
, became fully united to the Church. Western Europe now had a common faith. =
Franks
During the fifth century, the Franks emerged as the strongest of the German=
ic groups. Most Franks were free peasants . Agriculture was more important t=
o them than fighting. They set up farms wherever they expanded.
Clovis, the first important Frankish king, created a large kingdom in what =
is today southwestern Germany and France. He became the first Germanic ruler=
to accept Roman Catholicism. Clovis's military victories and his religious =
conversion gave his throne stability.
A century later the Frankish kingdom began to decline. Frankish kings had f=
ollowed the custom of dividing the kingdom among their heirs. Heirs became r=
ivals and fought each h other for land . By 700 A.D. political power had pas=
sed from kings to nobles and government officials known as mayors of the pal=
ace.
Charles Martel
By the early eighth century, the Franks once again move=
d toward unity. In 732 A.D., Charles Martel, a mayor of the palace, led the =
Franks to victory against a Muslim army in the Battle of Tours. The Frankish=
victory helped block Muslim expansion into Europe and ensured that it would=
remain Christian. This enabled Charles Martel and his family, later known a=
s the Carolingians, to unite the Franks politically. Thus was laid the found=
ation for a new western European civilization.
Pepin
In 751 A.D. with the backing of the nobles and the Chur=
ch, Pepin, the son of Charles Martel, became king of the Franks. The Pope an=
ointed, or put holy oil, on Pepin. This made him a divinely-chosen ruler in =
the eyes of his people.
In return for the church's blessing, Pepin was expected to help the Pope ag=
ainst his enemies. In 753 A.D. Pepin forced the Lombards, a Germanic people,=
to withdraw from Rome. He then gave Pope Stephen II a large strip of Lombar=
d land in central Italy. In' appreciation, the Pope cut his political ties t=
o the Byzantine Empire and looked to the Franks as his protectors. As a resu=
lt, the fortunes of western Europe and the papacy, or the office of Pope, we=
re bound more closely together.
Charlemagne
In 771 A.D., Pepin's son Charles became king of the Fra=
nks. He soon emerged as the first important western European monarch. Even i=
n his own lifetime, he was known as Charlemagne, meaning "Charles the G=
reat. "
A successful warrior, Charlemagne enlarged the borders of the Frankish king=
dom to include what is now Germany, France, northern Spain, and most of Ital=
y. He exercised more authority than the last of the western Roman emperors. =
As a result of Charlemagne's rule, most western Europeans were united under =
one government for the first time since the fall of Rome.
Because few western Europeans could read and write, Charlemagne encouraged =
the formation of schools in churches and monasteries. He gathered scholars f=
rom every area of western Europe to teach in a school in his palace. These s=
cholars helped preserve classical learning by making new and accurate copies=
of ancient manuscripts, such as the Bible, works by the Church Fathers, and=
the Roman classics. The scholars also used a common language-Latin. When kn=
owledge spread from Charlemagne's court to other areas of Europe, western Eu=
ropeans became united by a common set of ideas'.
Christian Empire
One of the ideas that united western Europeans was the =
creation of a Christian Roman Empire. Church leaders believed that Charlemag=
ne could turn this idea into reality. In 800 A.D. Charlemagne came to Rome t=
o defend Pope Leo III against the Roman nobles. To show his gratitude, Leo c=
rowned Charlemagne the new Roman emperor. As protector of the Church and the=
ruler of much of western Europe, Charlemagne wanted the title, but he had m=
isgivings about receiving it from the Pope. By crowning a monarch, the Pope =
seemed to be saying that church officials were superior to political leaders=
.
In spite of his concern, Charlemagne accepted his responsibilities as emper=
or and worked to strengthen the empire. Because the central bureaucracy was =
small, he relied on local officials called counts to assist him. Each count =
was carefully instructed on the duties of office. The counts solved local pr=
oblems, stopped feuds, protected the weak, and raised armies for the emperor=
. Each year, royal envoys known as missi dominici went on inspection tours. =
They reported to Charlemagne on the performance of the counts and other loca=
l administrators. The emperor also traveled throughout the empire observing =
the work of his officials firsthand.
Collapse
Charlemagne's personality, more than any other factor, =
held the empire together. After his death in 814 A.D., the empire weakened. =
Charlemagne's three grandsons fought each other for control of territory. In=
843 A.D. they agreed to the Treaty of Verdun. This treaty divided the Carol=
ingian lands. Charles the Bald took the western part, an area that is now Fr=
ance. Louis the German acquired the eastern portion, which today is Germany.=
Lothair became emperor and gained a long strip of land in the middle that s=
tretched from the North Sea to Italy.
Invasions
While internal feuding weakened the Carolingian kingdoms, outside invasions=
nearly destroyed them. The Muslims seized parts of southern Italy and gaine=
d control of the western Mediterranean. The Magyars, or Hungarians, a nomadi=
c group from central Asia, swept into the heartland of Europe. From Scandina=
via in the north came the Vikings.
Vikings
In the 800's A.D. the Vikings left their overpopulated =
homelands, which later became the kingdoms of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden. S=
killed in sailing and trading, they raided the Atlantic and Mediterranean co=
asts of Europe. The Norwegians settled the North Atlantic islands of Greenla=
nd and Iceland, and even reached North America. The Danes temporarily held E=
ngland and established the Viking state of Normandy in northwestern France. =
The Swedes settled in Russia and helped organize its scattered Slavic popula=
tion.
European Resistance
The people of western Europe suffered at the hands of t=
he Vikings and other invaders. Monasteries and towns were plundered. Many ar=
eas lost population and faced economic collapse. In spite of these setbacks,=
leaders in many areas of Europe were able to resist the invasions.
King Alfred the Great of England defeated the Danes and forced them to give=
up half the country. By 950 A.D. all of England was united under Alfred's d=
ynasty. At the Battle of Lech in 955 A.D., the Germans, led by King Otto I, =
halted the Hungarian advance. Seven years later the Pope crowned Otto empero=
r of the Holy Roman Empire, a large new state consisting of Germany and nort=
hern Italy.
France, lacking a strong central authority, had difficulty fighting the inv=
aders. In 955 A.D. a noble named Hugh Capet seized the French throne from th=
e Carolingian family. However, he controlled only a small area surrounding P=
aris. As a result of royal weakness, French nobles and local officials took =
over the responsibility of defense. They secured the loyalty of the people i=
n their areas and became virtually independent rulers.
Medieval Society
During the Middle Ages, European society was organized into a hierarchy of =
social groups. Each group had duties to perform for the other groups and for=
society as a whole. The first group was the clergy, whose duties were to te=
ach Christianity and to help the poor and the sick. The second group was mad=
e up of royalty and various ranks of nobles who served as warriors. Their du=
ty was to govern and protect the people. The third group consisted of peasan=
ts and a small number of townspeople. Their responsibility was to work for t=
he clergy and the nobles.
Feudalism
To stop invasions and to provide protection, kings and nobles in France dev=
eloped among themselves a new type of social organization known as feudalism=
. With the weakening of central government, feudalism soon spread to other a=
reas of western Europe. It developed differently in each area, but everywher=
e it had three common features. These were ties of loyalty and duty among no=
bles, landholding, and rule by local officials.
Beginnings Feudalism began about 900 A.D. However, some of its features dev=
eloped much earlier. For example, landownership and military service were ti=
ed together in the 700's A.D. At that time, Charles Martel was fighting the =
Muslims. Muslim soldiers used saddles with stirrups that enabled them to fig=
ht on horseback with a sword or lance. Martel wanted to adopt the stirrup an=
d develop a powerful cavalry. However, the cost of keeping such a force requ=
ired a new type of military system. To support the cavalry, Martel began gra=
nting warriors fiefs, or estates with peasants. From these fiefs, warriors g=
ot the income they needed to buy horses and battle equipment.
Frankish kings later enlarged this system. They gave fiefs to counts and ot=
her local officials. In return for the land, these nobles swore an oath of l=
oyalty to the king. They thought of the king as their lord and promised to a=
id him with arms.
With the Viking invasions of the ninth and tenth centuries, these arrangeme=
nts fully emerged as feudalism. The nobles who had been granted fiefs were a=
llowed to pass their lands on to their heirs. In return, these nobles, or lo=
rds, were expected to supply knights, or mounted warriors, for the royal arm=
y. In this way, a pyramid of feudal relationships developed. At the top was =
the king; at the bottom were the knights; and in the middle were various ran=
ks of lords. Each lord was a vassal, that is, a noble who served a lord of t=
he next higher rank.
Feudalism usually weakened a king's power because the loyalty of a lesser v=
assal was to his own immediate lord and not directly to the king. Powerful n=
obles soon acquired control over local governments. Nobles judged more serio=
us crimes on their fiefs. Lesser lords under them judged minor crimes.
Obligations
Ties between a lord and a vassal were made official in =
a solemn ceremony known as homage. The vassal knelt on the ground, placed hi=
s hands between those of his lord, and pledged his loyalty and service. Afte=
r this ceremony, the lord granted a fief to the vassal.
To hold his fief, the vassal had to perform certain duties. The principal d=
uty was to provide military service to the lord. This usually meant supplyin=
g a certain number of knights for 40 to 60 days a year. Other obligations we=
re known as aids. For example, the vassal was required to give advice at the=
lord's court. He also had to contribute money when the lord's son became a =
knight and when the eldest daughter married. If the lord was captured in bat=
tle and held for ransom, the vassals had to pay it. The vassal was expected =
to provide hospitality when the lord visited his fief. If the vassal did not=
fulfill his duties, the lord could seize the fief.
The lord could demand from the vassal certain rights known as incidents. Wh=
en the vassal died, his eldest son could inherit the fief only if he made a =
payment to the lord. If the vassal left a young son, the lord had the right =
to raise the boy. When the boy became an adult, he was made a vassal and inh=
erited the fief. If the vassal left a daughter, the lord had the right to ch=
oose her husband. This man would then become the vassal and inherit the fief=
. If the vassal died without heirs, the fief was returned to the lord.
Feudal Life
Because of the lack of a strong central government, warfare occurred freque=
ntly in feudal society. As a result, every noble built a castle or fortified=
manor house for defense against his enemies. The earliest castles appeared =
in the 900' A.D., and were made of wood. By the 1100' A.D., castles were mad=
e of stone. They had thick walls and turrets, or small towers. Each castle w=
as built on a hill or mound surrounded by a deep moat. Castles had a square =
tower called a keep. The keep, located in the strongest part of a castle, co=
ntained many rooms, a hall, and a dungeon. Surrounding the keep was a large =
open area called a bailey. Within the bailey were various buildings, includi=
ng barracks, storerooms, workshops, and a chapel.
Amusements
When they were not fighting, nobles trained for war by =
competing in tournaments, or special contests among knights. In these matche=
s, they tested their strength, skill, and endurance. Tournaments were often =
held to celebrate events like the wedding of a daughter or the knighting of =
a son. They were usually held in a large field near the castle. The most pop=
ular event of the tournament was the joust. In a joust, two knights in armor=
rode toward each other with long wooden lances. Each tried to knock the oth=
er to the ground.
Another amusement was the chase, or hunt. Nobles hunted deer and other wild=
life using dogs and falcons. Often ladies, or noblewomen, joined in the chas=
e. In more leisurely moments, nobles played chess or dice. They listened to =
the songs of a wandering minstrel, or singer, who entertained in return for =
a meal or lodging.
Women
Noblewomen often married before they were twelve years =
of age. They had little say in the choice of a husband. A couple's marriage =
was usually arranged by the leading men of the two families concerned. Women=
enjoyed few rights. Their primary duties were to raise children and to take=
care of the household. However, they often helped their husbands run fiefs =
and defend the castle during attacks. Ladies developed skills in making clot=
h and fine embroidery. They also learned to make medicines from plants and h=
erbs. They used this knowledge in caring for the sick and the poor.
Knighthood
Knights were an important part of feudal society. A son=
of a noble began training for knighthood at the age of seven. He started ou=
t as a page, or assistant, in the castle of a lord. There, he learned manner=
s and the use of weapons. At 15, he became a squire. In addition to attendin=
g a lord, a squire spent a large amount of time in military exercises. When =
sufficiently skilled, he was made a knight in a special ceremony. At this ce=
remony, the squire pledged to fight for the lord and to protect the weak. Th=
en the lord tapped him on the shoulder with the blade of a sword and pronoun=
ced him a knight.
The behavior of knights was governed by a code of chivalry. Its purpose was=
to reduce the coarseness and violence of medieval life. Its rules stated th=
at a knight should be brave in battle, fight fairly, keep his promises, and =
defend the Church. Chivalry also included standards for courteous behavior t=
oward women of noble birth. Although many knights failed to observe the code=
, chivalry became the basis for the development of etiquette, or good manner=
s, in western society.
Peasant Life
The feudal world of lords, knights, ladies, and kings was only one part of =
medieval life. Most western Europeans were peasants who lived in small villa=
ges under the protection of a lord. They supplied the food and other service=
s that enabled the clergy to perform religious duties and the nobles to figh=
t wars. At the same time, the peasants were considered inferior to these gro=
ups and enjoyed fewer rights.
Manor
During the 700's and 800's A.D., peasants had turned th=
eir lands over to nobles and clergy in return for protection. The lands were=
then combined into manors, or large estates. Manors varied in size from sev=
eral hundred to a thousand acres. Knights often owned only one manor, while =
powerful nobles owned hundreds of them. Many of these manors were often far =
apart. As a result, lords appointed officials to oversee each manor and its =
activities. These officials also ran the courts that enforced the lord's law=
on each estate.
Manors formed the basis of the agricultural system of the Middle Ages known=
as manorialism. While feudalism involved ties among nobles, manorialism con=
cerned agreements between nobles and peasants. In return for the lord's prot=
ection and government, the peasants provided a variety of services to the lo=
rd. These obligations included farming the lord's land, payments in kind to =
the lord, and various types of labor, such as road and bridge repair.
Manors were largely self-sufficient. The peasants provided for their own fo=
od, shelter' and clothing. They also supplied the needs of the lord and his =
household. Every manor had its own artisans. Peasant women worked for the lo=
rd by making candles, shearing sheep, spinning wool, and making clothes. Onl=
y rare luxury items were obtained from outside the manor.
Peasant Groups
Part of a manor was reserved as farmland for the lord. =
Another part was farmed by freeholders, or peasants who paid rent and provid=
ed the lord with a portion of their harvest. The remaining farmland was used=
by serfs, who were the majority of peasants. Unlike freeholders, serfs were=
bound to the soil and could not leave the manor without the lord's permissi=
on. In return for their land, serfs had to work two or three days a week on =
the lord's land . They worked extra days during planting and harvesting. Bot=
h the serfs and the freeholders had to provide the lord with farm products. =
Peasants worked long hours and faced many dangers. Famine and epidemics wer=
e commonplace. Wild beasts killed pasture animals and attacked peasant cotta=
ges. Nobles, fighting each other or on the hunt, often ruined peasant crops.=
Though bound to the manor, some serfs fled to the forests, where they joine=
d bands of outlaws. Others escaped to the towns. If they remained in a town =
for more than a year, serfs were considered free.
In spite of hardships, peasants were able to relax on Sundays and holy days=
. They enjoyed dancing, singing, and such sports as wrestling and archery. I=
n addition, there were other amusements, such as mystery plays, or religious=
dramas, pageants, and shows by minstrels.
Improvements
The manorial system normally produced only enough food =
to support the peasants and the lord's household. However, a number of impro=
vements gradually increased the productivity of the land.
The first improvement was a new plow. Since Roman times, western Europeans =
had farmed with a scratch plow. The scratch plow had a downward-pointed spik=
e. The plow was pulled by two oxen, first in one direction, then crosswise, =
over a square plot of land. The scratch plow was gradually replaced by a hea=
vier plow, which proved to be more effective in the rich, damp soils of nort=
hwestern Europe. The heavier plow made deeper cuts in the ground and had a d=
evice called a mouldboard that pushed the soil sideways. The plow was set on=
wheels, drawn by a team of oxen, and used to plow long strips of land rathe=
r than square plots. Peasants pooled their oxen and began to farm the land t=
ogether. The heavy plow allowed them to spend less time in plowing. As a res=
ult, farmers were able to develop a better method of planting.
During the ninth and tenth centuries, peasants had used a two-field system.=
By this method, half of the arable land was planted each year, while the ot=
her half lay fallow, or unsown. After 1000 A.D. the two-field system was gra=
dually replaced by a more efficient and productive three-field system. Under=
the new system, peasants divided the land into three large fields, which we=
re farmed together. Each field was in turn subdivided into long narrow strip=
s. The lord had about one-third of these strips; the rest were held by freeh=
olders and serfs'. The lord's and peasants' strips were divided among the th=
ree fields to ensure that both the good and bad land was shared equally. One=
of these fields was planted with winter wheat; a second with spring wheat a=
nd vegetables; and the third was left fallow. Each year the crops were rotat=
ed and different field would lay fallow. This helped preserve the fertility =
of the soil. The three-field system was used in many parts of Europe until t=
he eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
Catholic Church
The Roman Catholic Church was the center of life for western Europeans duri=
ng the Middle Ages. It taught that all people had sinned and had to rely on =
God's grace, or favor, to lead good lives and to win salvation. The principa=
l way to receive grace was by taking part in the sacraments, or church ritua=
ls. The most important of these sacraments was the Eucharist, or holy commun=
ion, which commemorated Christ's death on the cross. People shared in the Eu=
charist at mass, or- the church's worship service. At each mass, the priest =
blessed bread and a cup of wine that stood on the altar. According to church=
teaching, Jesus Christ was invisibly present in the Eucharist. The priest a=
nd the worshipers received his presence in the forms of the bread and wine. =
Although people were deeply religious, their understanding of church ceremo=
ny was limited. Masses were said in Latin, which few people understood. In m=
any villages priests were poorly educated and could not preach effectively. =
Many worshipers could not read or write, and few had access to reading mater=
ials. What the average person learned about Christianity usually came from t=
he stained glass windows, paintings, and statues found in most medieval chur=
ches. As a result, the general population relied on a mixture of Christian a=
nd pagan beliefs.
Church and Society
During the Middle Ages, the Catholic clergy helped kings and nobles govern =
western Europe. Bishops and abbots were an important part-of the feudal syst=
em. Because many of them came from noble families, they received land from k=
ings in return for military service. But as religious leaders, the bishops a=
nd abbots were not supposed to fight. They solved their problem by getting k=
nights to fight for them in exchange for land. This meant that many church l=
eaders were vassals of lords and, in turn, lords of vassals with the same du=
ties as any other noble.
Reform Because of its feudal ties, the Church became very wealthy. Rich nob=
les donated money to build large churches and gave gifts of land to monaster=
ies. However, the wealthier the Church became, the more church officials gre=
w careless about carrying out their religious duties. Contrary to church tra=
dition, local lords came to control many church offices and lands. They ofte=
n appointed close relatives as bishops and abbots.
During the tenth and eleventh centuries, a movement for church reform devel=
oped in the monasteries and spread throughout western Europe. Devout nobles =
founded new monasteries that strictly followed the Benedictine Rule. The mos=
t famous of these was Cluny in eastern France. The monks of Cluny led simple=
pious lives and soon won the respect of the people.
Influenced by church reform, a new group of church leaders worked to free t=
he Church from the control of feudal lords. These leaders wanted to make the=
Church the final authority in western society. In 1059 A.D. they declared t=
hat political leaders could no longer choose popes. The election of popes wa=
s then placed in the hands of the cardinals, or the clergy of Rome. In addit=
ion, the reformers insisted that the Pope, not secular rulers, should appoin=
t bishops and priests to church offices.
Gregory VII
In 1073 A.D. a reforming monk named Hildebrand became P=
ope Gregory VII. Gregory believed that the Pope should have complete jurisdi=
ction over all church officials. He criticized the practice of lay investitu=
re, in which secular rulers gave the symbols of office, such as a ring and a=
staff, to the bishops they had appointed.
The attack on lay investiture brought Gregory into bitter conflict with the=
Holy Roman Emperor, Henry IV. Henry controlled the bishops and abbots of Ge=
rmany and used them to govern the country. Thus, he believed that Gregory's =
opposition to lay investiture endangered his hold on Germany. Henry denounce=
d Gregory as an illegally elected Pope and summoned a council of German bish=
ops to remove him from the papacy. Gregory answered by cutting off Henry fro=
m the Church. In addition, Henry's subjects were freed from.obeying their ki=
ng.
When the German nobles threatened civil war Henry decided to make his peace=
with Gregory. In 1077 A.D., Henry traveled to Italy where he met Gregory at=
the Castle of Canossa. For three days Henry waited in the snow, seeking the=
Pope's forgiveness. In the end, Gregory admitted Henry, accepted his promis=
e to obey papal orders, and pardoned him.
The struggle between the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor continued after Gr=
egory's death in 1085 A.D. Thirty-seven years later, in 1122 A.D., a comprom=
ise was reached at the Concordat of Worms.' The emperor could still name bis=
hops, but the Pope could refuse to approve those whom he felt were spiritual=
ly unqualified. Because no one could hold church office without the Pope's f=
inal approval, the Concordat of Worms, in the long run, increased the Pope's=
authority. With greater responsibilities, the Pope developed a strong burea=
ucracy in Rome to help him govern the Church.
Innocent III
In the early 1200's A.D., the papacy reached the height=
of its power under
Innocent III. Innocent declared that the Pope was the final authority -in t=
he Christian world. He claimed the right to judge and correct the actions of=
secular leaders. For example, Innocent III placed church penalties on Engla=
nd to make King John accept his choice for Archbishop of Canterbury. Innocen=
t III also judged the elections of Holy Roman Emperors and rejected candidat=
es whom he thought unworthy.
During Innocent III's reign, the Church took steps to stop the spread of he=
resy. At first, the Church tried to convert heretics through peaceful means =
such as preaching. But soon force was used. In 1207 A.D. Innocent III sent a=
n army of French knights to southern France to fight heretics known as Albig=
ensians . In spite of fierce resistance, the Albigensians were crushed.
Inquisition
After the Albigensian defeat, heretics in Europe contin=
ued to practice their beliefs secretly. In order to seek out and punish them=
, the Church developed a court known as the Inquisition. The judges of the I=
nquisition often misused their powers. They accepted rumors as a basis for a=
ccusations and used torture to obtain confessions. Heretics who refused to c=
hange their beliefs were sentenced to die by burning. At the time, the Churc=
h justified these practices, stating that the loss of the heretic's soul was=
far worse than the killing of the body. The Inquisition largely succeeded i=
n stopping heresy. However, it created an atmosphere of fear and distrust in=
many areas of Europe.
Friars
During the early thirteenth century, friars, or wanderi=
ng preachers, sought to reform the Church. They emerged at a time when churc=
h leaders were being widely criticized for their love of wealth and power. T=
he friars set an example by living simply and owning no possessions. They de=
pended on gifts of food and shelter to survive. For this reason, they were c=
alled mendicants, or religious beggars. Although they followed monastic rule=
s, the friars did not isolate themselves from the world. Instead, they lived=
in towns and preached Christianity to the people.
Two well-known orders, or church-approved groups, of friars were the Franci=
scans and the Dominicans. The Franciscans were founded in 1200 A.D. by Franc=
is of Assisi, the son of a wealthy Italian cloth merchant. Francis and his f=
ollowers sought to follow the simple lives of Jesus and his disciples. They =
became known for their cheerful trust in God and their respect for nature as=
a divine gift. The Dominicans were organized in 1220 A.D. by a Spanish prie=
st named Dominic. Like the Franciscans, the Dominicans lived a life of pover=
ty and service to others. However, they also stressed the importance of well=
-educated, persuasive preachers who could reply to the arguments of heretics=
. Both the Franciscans and the Dominicans met with immediate success.
Through their example and preaching, they kept many western Europeans loyal=
to the Roman Catholic Church.
Crusades
During the Middle Ages, the Church sponsored a series of holy wars called c=
rusades. The crusades went on for about 200 years. They brought about signif=
icant changes in western Europe.
First Crusade
The First Crusade w - claimed by Pope Urban 11 in 1095 =
A.D. at Clermont, France. It was directed against the Seljuk Turks, a Muslim=
people from central Asia. The Seljuks held the Christian shrines in P=
alestine, -including Jerusalem. They were also threatening the Byzantine Emp=
ire.
At Clermont, Pope Urban asked for an army to take Palestine from the Seljuk=
s. He said:
I exhort=
you ... * to strive to expel that wicked race [the Seljuks] from our =
Christian =
lands... Christ commands it. Remission of sins will be granted for &nb=
sp; those going t=
hither... Let those who are accustomed to wage private war =
; wastefully even again=
st believers go forth against the infidels... Let those &n=
bsp; who have lived by plunde=
ring be soldiers of Christ; let those who formerly &=
nbsp; contended against brothers an=
d relations rightly fight barbarians; let those &nbs=
p; who were recently hired for a few pieces of silver win t=
heir eternal
reward. =
. . The sorrowful here will be glad there, the poor here will be rich =
there, and=
the enemies of the Lord here will be His friends there. Let no =
delay postpone t=
he journey, . . when winter has ended and spring has come =
enter the highways cou=
rageously with the Lord going on before.
Thousands of knights and common people responded to the Pope's plea and joi=
ned the crusade. Many of them had strong religious reasons for their involve=
ment. As a sign of their religious passion, they adopted the war cry: "=
Deus vult," which means "It is the will of God." They also wo=
re red crosses on their tunics as a symbol of their obedience to God. Other =
crusaders saw the holy war as an opportunity to escape . problems, seek adve=
nture, or acquire wealth.
Bands of peasants were the first to start out for Palestine.=
Inexperienced in warfare, most of them either died on the way or were massa=
cred by the Seljuks. The peasants were followed by knights. After a short st=
ay in Constantinople, the knights invaded Asia Minor and marched to Palestin=
e. On their journey, the crusaders suffered from hunger and disease. They we=
re also divided by quarrels among their leaders. In spite of these difficult=
ies the crusaders won two battles and finally took Jerusalem in 1099 A.D.
The success of the First Crusade reinforced the influence of the Church and=
' strengthened the self-confidence of western Europeans. The religious enthu=
siasm of the crusaders, however, soon cooled. Many knights returned home. Th=
ose who remained set up a series of feudal states in Syria and Palestine.
Second Crusade
Less than 50 years after the First Crusade, the Seljuks=
conquered part of the crusader states. Pope Eugenius IV then called the Sec=
ond Crusade to regain the lost territory. The monk Bernard of Clairvaux prea=
ched eloquent sermons in support of the crusade. He persuaded King Louis VII=
of France and Holy Roman Emperor Conrad III to lead armies to Palestine. In=
spite of high hopes, the Second Crusade failed. The two rulers constantly q=
uarreled with each other. As a result, their forces were defeated by the Sel=
juks.
Third Crusade
Soon other Muslims came to power in Palestine and conqu=
ered crusader lands. The fall of Jerusalem to the Muslim leader Saladin in 1=
187 A.D. stunned western Europe. In response, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick B=
arbarossa of Germany, King Philip Augustus of France, and King Richard I of =
England led the Third Crusade. This "Crusade of Kings" proved to b=
e a failure. Barbarossa died on the way to Palestine, and Philip Augustus re=
turned to France. Richard continued the struggle alone, but his army was not=
strong enough to defeat Saladin. After three years, Richard gave up and sig=
ned a truce with the Muslims. The crusaders continued to control a coastal s=
trip of Palestine and Syria, but Jerusalem remained Muslim.
Other Crusades
Other crusades followed in the thirteenth century, but =
none succeeded in winning permanent Christian control of Palestine. In fact,=
the Muslims slowly conquered all the remaining Christian territories. In 12=
91 A.D. they captured Acre, the last Christian stronghold in Palestine. By t=
his time, western Europeans had lost sight of the religious goal of the crus=
ades. They were now more concerned about political and economic gain. As a r=
esult, European rulers lost interest in regaining Palestine and shifted thei=
r attention to other matters.
Effects
Although the crusades failed, they had an important imp=
act on the development of
western Europe. At home, I they helped break down feudalism. Many of the le=
sser nobles had to sell their estates to raise money for the crusades. Other=
nobles died in battle without heirs. Their lands passed to new owners. Taki=
ng advantage of such situations, many serfs bought their freedom and became =
freeholders on the
land or artisans in the towns. Meanwhile, kings increased their authority o=
ver nobles by raising. large armies that replaced the small feudal forces.
The crusades also helped bring western Europe out of its isolation. The cru=
saders' contact with the civilizations of the Byzantines and Muslims created=
a demand at home for eastern luxury goods. To meet this demand, European me=
rchants opened up new trade routes.- They brought home spices, sugar, lemons=
, melons, rugs, tapestries, and richly woven cloth. As a result, western Eur=
opean standards of living improved for the first time since the days of the =
Roman Empire.
The crusades were the first attempt by western Europeans to move into non-E=
uropean areas. This expansion played an important part in making later Europ=
ean voyages of discovery possible. As a result, Europeans learned to draw mo=
re accurate maps and build better ships and weapons. They also developed ski=
lls in constructing fortresses, roads, and bridges. European expansion, howe=
ver, embittered relations with the Byzantine and Muslim worlds. ,
Economic and Cultural Revival
Medieval civilization reached its height during the High Middle Ages, or th=
e period between 1000 and 1300 A.D. During this time, feudalism, manorialism=
, and 'the Church continued to influence western Europe. New forces, however=
, shaped medieval society and challenged traditional ways. People gained new=
confidence in their own abilities. Towns and trade began to flourish, and m=
ore complex institutions appeared. Along with these developments, there was =
an awakening in learning and the arts.
Economic Expansion
Around, 1000 A.D. western Europe's economy began to revive. Population incr=
eased, and there was an expansion in food production. Improved farming techn=
iques opened up new land to cultivation. Nobles, freeholders, and serfs bega=
n migrating into new areas. They cleared forests, drained swamps, and built =
new farms and villages. In one of the largest migrations of the Middle Ages =
the Germans moved into eastern Europe, doubling the territory they controlle=
d. This expansion brought the Germans into conflict with the Slavs, who had =
occupied the region since the 600's A.D.
Towns
As agriculture was expanded, the towns of western Europ=
e grew in size and number. Most of them developed along rivers or beside cas=
tles and monasteries. For protection, towns were surrounded by walls. As tow=
ns grew, additional space was often hard to find. Houses were built close to=
gether and often had extra stories that extended over narrow unpaved streets=
. Shops were located on the first floor of homes, while other floors were us=
ed for living quarters. Because most buildings were made of wood, fire was a=
constant hazard. Contagious diseases were another serious danger. Many spre=
ad with deadly speed due to an almost complete lack of sanitation.
Trade
Towns furnished markets for agricultural goods and spec=
ialized in the production and sale of crafts. This economic activity stimula=
ted trade in all parts of Europe. The most .prosperous trading towns develop=
ed on the important sea routes that connected western Europe with the Medite=
rranean Sea, Russia, and Scandinavia. Italian towns, such as Venice, Pisa, a=
nd Genoa, controlled Mediterranean trade and brought silks and spices from t=
he East into Europe. On the northwest coast of Europe, the towns of the regi=
on called Flanders were the leading centers of trade. These towns specialize=
d in producing woolen textiles. Throughout Europe and the Middle East, marke=
ts were found for Flanders' cloth. Other towns grew up along the Baltic coas=
t. They controlled trade between Russia and the North Atlantic. Their major =
products were furs, timber, and fish.
Overland trade also developed in western Europe. Italian towns sent a stead=
y stream of goods across the Alps to France and Germany. Soon, groups of mer=
chants were traveling along many routes across the continent. These activiti=
es led to the rise of inland towns and trade fairs. The most famous fair was=
held in Champagne, a region of eastern France that served as the crossroads=
of western Europe. At the Champagne fair, merchants traded textiles and woo=
ls from northern Europe for luxury goods from the Mediterranean world.
Banking
Before long, merchants at the trade fairs gave up barte=
ring and began to pay for goods with money. The rise of a money economy led =
to money lending and the growth of banking. Merchants developed procedures f=
or transferring funds from one place to another. They received deposits and =
made loans, becoming the first bankers in Europe.
The growth of money and banking put the feudal classes in an economic squee=
ze. Kings, popes, and nobles became dependent on borrowed money from bankers=
to pay for their steadily rising expenses. To pay off their loans, they had=
to raise taxes, sell their lands, or demand money payments in place of trad=
itional feudal services.
Guilds
Most burghers, or townspeople, were merchants, artisans=
, and workers. Many of them recognized the importance of working together to=
better their lives. During the twelfth century they organized into business=
associations called guilds. Each type of business or trade was represented =
by its own guild, whose members lived and worked in the same area of town. G=
uilds set standards of production and forbade competition. They also made st=
rict rules on prices, wages, and employment to ensure equal treatment. Guild=
members controlled all business and trade in a town. Outsiders who wanted t=
o sell their goods in the town market had to get permission from the guilds.=
Apart from their business activities, guilds provided benefits, such as med=
ical care and unemployment relief, for members and their families. Guilds al=
so organized social and religious life. Guilds sponsored banquets, holy day =
processions, or parades, and outdoor plays. The meetings and activities of a=
guild were held in a building called a guildhall.
Guilds for the trades were controlled by masters, who owned their own shops=
and tools. Under them were journeymen, experienced workers who received dai=
ly wages. A third group was the apprentices, or young workers learning the t=
rade. With this close-knit organization, many guilds became politically powe=
rful and often governed towns.
Conflict
Conflict soon developed between the landed feudal class=
es and burghers, City dwellers did not fit into the feudal system and theref=
ore resented owing taxes and services to lords. They wanted to run their own=
affairs and have their own courts and laws. The feudal lords feared the gro=
wing wealth and power of the burghers. They began to strictly enforce feudal=
laws to keep burghers in their place.
The towns eventually won the struggle. In the twelfth century the towns of.=
Italy formed political groups called communes. These groups ended the power=
of feudal lords, and made the Italian towns independent city-states. In oth=
er areas of Europe, kings and nobles gave burghers documents known as charte=
rs. These allowed the burghers to control their own affairs; at the same tim=
e, many towns remained a part of. a kingdom or a feudal territory.
Learning and the Arts
During the Middle Ages, education was in the hands of the clergy. They set =
up schools in monasteries and cathedrals. There students prepared to become =
church officials. They learned subjects such as church music, theology, and,=
Latin.. They were also required to study subjects known as the seven libera=
l arts. They included grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, astron=
omy, and music.
Universities
Around 1150 A.D. a new interest in learning developed i=
n western Europe.
Students and teachers began meeting apart from the monastery and cathedral =
schools. They formed organizations that became known as universities. Univer=
sities set rules so that students and teachers would know their obligations =
toward each other. They also set standards for new teachers and had well-org=
anized courses of study. Classes met at regular times, and students listened=
to lectures on specific subjects. To qualify as teachers, students had to p=
ass an examination leading to a degree, or certificate of completion.
Church officials and secular rulers supported the growth of universities. T=
hey needed educated people to staff their rapidly growing bureaucracies. By =
the end of the thirteenth century, universities had spread throughout Europe=
.
Most southern European universities were secular and specialized in law and=
medicine. They were modeled on the law school' at Bologna, Italy. There stu=
dents hired professors and set rules for them to follow. One rule called for=
teachers to be punished if absent or late. On the other hand, northern Euro=
pean universities were run by the teachers, who charged a fee to train stude=
nts and grant degrees. These universities specialized in liberal arts and th=
eology. They were modeled on the University of Paris, the oldest of the medi=
eval universities.
New Learning
At the medieval universities, scholars studied, in grea=
t depth, the Latin classics and Roman law. They also acquired new knowledge =
from the works of Aristotle and the scientific writings of the Arabs. As a r=
esult, medieval scholars developed a renewed interest in the physical world =
that would lead, in time, to the rise of western science.
Many church leaders opposed the study of Aristotle's works. They feared tha=
t Aristotle's ideas were hostile to the Christian faith. Some scholars, howe=
ver, saw no threat from this new knowledge. They applied Aristotle's philoso=
phy to theological questions and developed a system of thought called schola=
sticism. Scholasticism sought to reconcile classical philosophy with church =
teachings. It emphasized the importance of reason, as well as faith, in the =
interpretation of Christian doctrine.
One early scholastic teacher was Peter Abelard. He taught theology in Paris=
during the early 1100's A.D. In his book Sic et Non, or Yes and No, he coll=
ected certain statements from the Bible and the writings of the Church Fathe=
rs that showed both sides of controversial questions. Abelard then had his s=
tudents reconcile the differences through logical thinking.
The most important scholastic thinker of the thirteenth century was Thomas =
Aquinas, an Italian noble who taught philosophy in Paris and Naples. In his =
most outstanding work, Summa Theologica, or A Summary of Religious Thought, =
Aquinas claimed that reason was a gift from God that could provide answers t=
o basic philosophical questions. Aquinas's teaching and way of thinking were=
later accepted and promoted by the Roman Catholic Church.
Literature
During the Middle Ages, there was a great outpouring of=
literature. Songs and epics of the early Middle Ages were written down for =
the first time. The earliest work was Beowulf, an epic poem about an Anglo-S=
axon warrior. It was written in England around 700 A.D. Later, French writer=
s composed epic poems, which were called chansons de geste. These poems cele=
brated the courage of feudal warriors. The most famous was the Song of Rolan=
d. Written about 1100 A.D., it tells of the heroic death of one of Charlemag=
ne's knights after an ambush by a Muslim army.
Romances, or love stories about knights and ladies, became popular during t=
he Middle Ages. These stories usually idealized feudal society. In France', =
troubadours, or musician-singers, produced short lyric poems, which spread t=
o other parts of Europe. In their works, they presented military feats, poli=
tical satire, and love themes.
Most of these works were written in the vernacular, or everyday speech, of =
the common people. Although Latin was the language of scholars and church le=
aders, most people spoke early forms of German, French, and English. Vernacu=
lar languages were one of the forces that gave each kingdom of Europe its ow=
n identity.
During the fourteenth century, writers began to use vernacular languages in=
their works. The Italian writer Dante Alighieri wrote the Divine Comedy, a =
narrative poem, in Italian verse. The Divine Comedy describes an imaginary j=
ourney from hell to heaven and presents the important theological concepts o=
f the Middle Ages. England's Geoffrey Chaucer wrote Canterbury Tales in an e=
arly form of English. This work is about a group of pilgrims traveling to a =
shrine at Canterbury, England. The pilgrims represent typical personalities =
of the medieval period.
Medieval Monarchies
The growth of western Europe's economy and culture strengthened its politic=
al institutions. Powerful monarchies emerged in various countries. Kings beg=
an to develop more efficient ways of governing. They checked the lawless ten=
dencies of feudalism and gained the support of townspeople.
France
During the tenth and eleventh centuries, France was a collection of many fe=
udal territories. No institution existed to bind these regions together. Fra=
nce's kings, descended from Hugh Capet and known as Capetians, were weak and=
did little to increase royal power. They ruled a small area of land between=
the Seine and Loire Rivers in northern France.
Louis VI
During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the author=
ity of the French kings increased. In 1108 A.D. Louis VI became king. Helped=
by his close adviser Abbot Suger, Louis strengthened royal government. ' He=
set up new positions and filled them with loyal persons of lower birth rath=
er than nobles. He punished rebellious vassals and brought greater security =
to the countryside. Louis also granted charters of self-government to many t=
owns, thus winning the support of townspeople.
Philip Augustus
Philip Augustus, also known as Philip II, ruled from 11=
80 to 1223 A.D. He further strengthened the monarchy. During his reign, Pari=
s was rebuilt and made the center of French government. Philip increased the=
size of his kingdom through marriage and by acquiring, French lands held by=
the English. In governing his territories, Philip preserved feudal institut=
ions and made them work for the monarchy. Royal agents known as bailiffs wer=
e appointed to preside over local courts, collect taxes, and command militar=
y forces.
Louis IX
In 1226 A.D. Philip's grandson became King Louis IX. Lo=
uis banned feudal fighting and decreed that only the king, not the nobles, h=
ad the right to mint coins. His concern for justice resulted in the dominanc=
e of royal courts over feudal courts. Louis' saintly life led to increased m=
oral authority for the French monarchy. His actions caused the French people=
to regard the king as the source of national unity.
Philip IV
Philip IV, Louis IX's grandson, ruled from 1285 to 1314=
A.D. Because of his handsome appearance, he was also known as Philip the Fa=
ir. Philip increased France's territory and trade by fighting England and Fl=
anders. To pay for these wars, he raised taxes and extended them to new grou=
ps, such as the clergy. In 1296 A.D. Pope Boniface VIII forbade secular rule=
rs like Philip to tax the clergy without his consent. Philip, however, was s=
trong enough to force the Pope to back down. The French king's action dealt =
a blow to the political authority of the Pope.
With the powers of the central government increasing, Philip enlarged the r=
oyal bureaucracy. He also formed the Estates-General, an assembly of nobles,=
clergy, and townspeople, to advise him on important matters. By the time he=
died in 1314 A.D., Philip had increased royal power over the feudal nobles.=
He had laid the foundations of a national government in France.
England
During the eleventh century, England's monarchy weakened, and the nobles in=
creased their hold on the country. When the last Anglo-Saxon king, Edward th=
e Confessor, died in 1065 A.D., Harold Godwinson, the most powerful English =
noble, became the new monarch. Harold's kingship, however, was challenged by=
William Duke of Normandy. In 1066 A.D., with an army of over 5,000 men, Wil=
liam crossed the English Channel and defeated Godwinson's forces at the Batt=
le of Hastings. As a result of his victory, William became known as "th=
e Conqueror." Later that year he succeeded to the English throne as Kin=
g William I.
To crush English revolts and maintain the loyalty of his followers, William=
introduced feudalism into England. He seized the lands of Anglo-Saxon noble=
s and gave them to soldiers from Normandy. In return for their lands, these =
soldiers became William's vassals. Unlike French feudalism, the English vari=
ety strengthened the monarchy by making all landowners, even lesser vassals,=
directly loyal to the king.
However, William received advice from a Great Council of royal officials, b=
ishops, and nobles. He also relied on local government officials called sher=
iffs to collect taxes and raise armies. Although he kept many Anglo-Saxon la=
ws and practices, he extended the authority of central government over the e=
ntire country. In 1086 A.D. William took a census in order to determine how =
much to tax his subjects. This census was the first of its kind in western E=
urope since the Roman Empire. The census figures were later recorded in two =
huge volumes called the Domesday Book.
Henry I
The strengthening of royal government was continued by =
William's grandson Henry 1, who ruled from 1100 to 1135 A.D. Henry set up th=
e Exchequer, a special department that handled royal finances. The founding =
of the Exchequer marked the beginning of government bureaucracy in England. =
Henry also set up a system of royal courts in which circuit judges traveled =
about the country to hear legal cases. Their work lessened the power of the =
feudal courts and emphasized the king's role as keeper of the peace.
Henry II
After a period of civil war, in 1154 A.D. Henry I's son=
became King Henry II of England. During his reign, Henry II ruled England a=
nd was a feudal lord in France. In England he restored order and limited the=
power of the nobles. He also enlarged the activities of the royal courts an=
d used the law to increase his authority. Henry set up a central royal court=
in London, with trained lawyers as judges.
The circuit judges applied the same legal rules in all parts. of England, c=
reating a common law for the entire kingdom. In each community the judges me=
t with a grand jury, or a group of 12 people that submitted the names of peo=
ple in the area suspected of crimes. Soon a system of trial by jury was deve=
loped for determining the guilt or innocence of the accused. The juries in s=
uch proceedings be -came known as petty juries.
Richard I and John
Henry's sons Richard I and John were unpopular rulers. =
Richard I, also known as Richard the Lionheart, became king in 1189 A.D. He =
neglected England for the crusades and heavily taxed the people. John succee=
ded Richard ten years later. John lost most of the royal lands in France to =
the French king. He increased taxes and punished his enemies without giving =
them trials. The nobles became alarmed and demanded a guarantee of their rig=
hts. In 1215 A.D. they forced John to sign the Magna Charta, or "Great =
Charter."
The Magna Charta placed limits on royal power. A king could no longer colle=
ct taxes without the consent of the Great Council. A noble accused of a crim=
e had the right to trial by his peers, or equals. If the king broke these pr=
omises, his subjects were free to rebel against him. Although the Magna Char=
ta supported the feudal rights of nobles, it later came to be viewed as a st=
ep toward democracy. It brought to English government the idea that even a k=
ing was bound by the law.
Parliament
After John's death in 1216 A.D., his son became king. H=
enry III was a weak ruler and allowed the feudal lords to govern England. In=
1264 A.D. Simon de Monfort, Henry's brother-in-law, called representatives =
of the knights and burgesses, or important townspeople, to sit in the Great =
Council. Shortly after this time, meetings of the Great Council became known=
as parliaments.
Henry's son Edward I became king in 1272 A.D. Edward wanted to bring all of=
Britain under his control. As a result, he devoted much of his reign to the=
conquest of Wales and Scotland, two lands that bordered England. However, E=
dward's greatest achievement was the advancement of representative governmen=
t. In 1295 A.D. Edward called into session the Model Parliament, so called b=
ecause it set up a system of representation for all classes. The Model Parli=
ament became the example for all future English parliaments.
Following this first session, Parliament became a regular feature of Englis=
h government. it was the final court of justice in the kingdom. It also advi=
sed the king on policy and helped him make laws. Parliament eventually force=
d the monarch to accept the rule that taxes could be levied only with its co=
nsent. By 1400 A.D. Parliament consisted of two separate groups: nobles and =
clergy met as the House of Lords, while knights and burgesses met as the Hou=
se of Commons.
Holy Roman Empire
During the tenth and eleventh centuries, the Holy Roman Empire was the most=
powerful state in Europe. Holy Roman Emperors viewed themselves as heirs of=
Charlemagne and as leaders of Western Christianity. Until 1059 A.D. the emp=
erors even controlled the election of popes. However, after the power strugg=
le between Pope Gregory VII and Emperor Henry IV, the emperors' hold over th=
e empire weakened. German nobles began to rule their domains like independen=
t states. They insisted that the emperors be elected by them at a diet, or a=
ssembly. At the same time, the towns of northern Italy declared their indepe=
ndence from the feudal lords of the Holy Roman Empire.
In 1152 A.D.. Frederick Barbarossa, a member of the Hohenstaufen family, be=
came Holy Roman Emperor. Frederick, also called Frederick I, took steps to r=
estore the emperor's authority and the empire's unity. First, he forced the =
German nobles to swear allegiance to him and to work for his government. How=
ever, this step proved unsuccessful in restoring his authority. Instead, the=
nobles grew wealthy from their new government jobs, which further undermine=
d the emperor's power.
Next, Frederick tried to reassert control over northern Italy. There, the c=
ommunes, led by Milan, formed the Lombard League to oppose him. With the bac=
king of Pope Alexander III, the communes defeated Frederick's armies at the =
Battle of Legnano in 1176 A.D. Frederick was forced to accept a peace that r=
ecognized the independence of the communes.
After Frederick's death in 1190 A.D., his son Henry VI was acknowledged as =
emperor by the German nobles. Henry married the heiress of the kingdom of Si=
cily. After he added Sicily to the empire, he spent all of his time in that =
country. W hen Henry died in 1197 A.D., his son Frederick II became Holy Rom=
an Emperor.
Born and raised in Sicily, Frederick ignored Germany. He concentrated on bu=
ilding a Mediterranean empire that would extend from Sicily to northern Ital=
y. When Frederick began conquests in Italy, Pope Innocent IV feared that the=
emperor would seize church lands near Rome. In 1245 A.D. the Pope called a =
church council that declared a crusade against Frederick. The Pope's attack =
gave German nobles the opportunity to further break away from the emperor's =
control. As a result, Germany became a loose confederation of territories un=
der the rule of nobles. The nobles were free to accept or reject the emperor=
's policies.
In Sicily the Pope was eventually able Jo replace the Hohenstaufens with th=
e Anjous, a family from France. This move was unpopular with the Sicilians. =
In 1298 A.D., with the aid of the Spanish, they drove out the Anjou ruler. A=
s a result of the Pope's involvement in this secular concern, he lost much r=
espect as the spiritual leader of western Europe.
Cathedral Architecture
Magnificent stone cathedrals were the grand masterpieces of the Middle Ages=
. Rising above towns and villages, they reflected the faith, skill, and dedi=
cation of medieval patrons and builders. Nobles, merchants, architects, and =
laborers gave money, talent, and effort to build cathedrals. It often took m=
any years to finish the largest of them.
The English word "cathedral" comes from the Latin term cathedra, =
meaning "seat." In the Church, the word came to be used for the bi=
shop's seat or throne. Thus, a cathedral is a church containing a bishop's t=
hrone. Most medieval cathedrals were built in the shape of a cross. Some sch=
olars believe that this was done as a reminder of the death of Jesus. Others=
, however, claim that the arrangement reflected a more practical concern for=
space and balance.
From about 800 to 1100 A.D., medieval cathedrals were built according to th=
e Romanesque style of architecture. Romanesque architecture combined Roman, =
Byzantine, and other styles. Romanesque cathedrals were massive buildings, n=
oted for their thick stone walls and heavy arches. Other features were dark =
interiors, arched ceilings, small windows, and horizontal space. Because of =
their sturdiness, Romanesque cathedrals were called "fortresses of God.=
"
In the twelfth century, new artistic ideas changed cathedral architecture. =
The French church leader Abbot Suger thought of God -as absolute beauty. He =
believed that humans could come to know God through beautiful things. Suger =
made a number of revolutionary changes in the construction of St. Denis, his=
monastery church near Paris. These changes became the basis of a new style =
of architecture known as Gothic.
In building Gothic cathedrals, architects wanted to create soaring spaces t=
hat would direct the gaze of worshipers upward to heaven. To create this vis=
ual effect, cathedrals were designed with thinner walls and lighter columns.=
The columns were extended into the ceiling, where they curved -out to form =
ribbed vaults, or
fan-like arched roofs . The vaults were supported by pointed arches and fly=
ing buttresses, or arched supports built against the outside walls.
The sides of Gothic cathedrals were filled in with beautiful stained glass =
windows. These windows let shimmering rays of multicolored light into the na=
ve, or central area of the church. The most magnificent stained glass was th=
e round petal-shaped rose window set above the. portal, or church entrance. =
The blending of colored light with white stone in Gothic cathedrals produced=
feelings of awe and wonder.
During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, Gothic architecture spread =
from France to other areas of Europe. Each region soon developed its own Got=
hic style. Cathedrals became larger in size and grander in decoration. Their=
interiors and exteriors were alive with sculptures of the saints, biblical =
stories, and everyday events. Every part of the cathedral testified to the m=
edieval sense of the glory of God.
1. Identify: Benedict, Gregory I, Clovis, Charles Martel,=
Battle of Tours, Pepin, Charlemagne, Treaty of Verdun, Alfred the Great, Ho=
ly Roman Empire, Hugh Capet.
I A concordat is an agreement between a Pope and a secular ruler. This part=
icular concordat was reached in the German town of Worms.
1. Identify: Cluny, Gregory VII, Henry IV, Canossa, Innocent III, Albigensi=
ans, Inquisition, Francis of Assisi, Urban II, =B3Crusade of Kings,=B2 Acre.
1. Identify: Flanders, Champagne, Bologna, Peter Abelard,=
Thomas Aquinas, Song of Roland, Dante Alighieri, Geoffrey Chaucer.
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