Chapter Five
Byzantines and Russians
The fall of Rome led to a new era in the history of the West. Historians
have called this era ""the Middle Ages." Lasting from about 500 to 1500
A.D., the Middle Ages was a transition period between ancient and modern
times.
During the Middle Ages, the former Roman Empire was divided into three
areas: the Byzantine Empire, the Islamic Empire, and western Europe. The
Byzantine Empire lasted for 1,000 years and was the leading Christian
civilization of the Middle ages. The Islamic Empire included the Middle East
and North Africa. It was based on Islam a new religion that emerged in- the
600's A.D. Western Europe underwent. a cultural decline after the fall of
Rome. Yet, by 1200 A.D., it had developed-a new civilization rooted in
Christianity.
From 500 to 1500 A.D., other civilizations flourished beyond the
Mediterranean world. In Africa and the Americas, a variety of peoples
developed distinctive ways of life. Early African and American achievements,
however, were unknown until the 1500's A.D.
By 500 A.D. Roman rule in the west had ended. The eastern part of the Roman
Empire, however, survived and lasted about 1,000 years longer. It became
known as the Byzantine Empire. At its height, the Byzantine Empire consisted
of most of the Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. It had more
people and was richer in economic resources than the old western empire. As
a result, the Byzantine Empire was able to withstand invasions and to
develop a flourishing civilization.
After the fall of Rome, the Byzantine Empire considered itself the heir of
Roman power and traditions. Its capital, Constantinople, was known as ""New
Rome." There, Byzantine rulers governed with the authority of Roman
emperors. However, the Byzantine Empire was not simply a continuation of the
old Roman Empire. Although the Byzantines preserved classical learning, they
stressed the Greek, rather than the Latin, heritage. They also used Greek
ideas to develop Christian theology, or religious teachings. Their form of
Christianity, known as Eastern Orthodoxy, played a major role in Byzantine
life. At the same time, the Byzantine Empire was open to cultural influences
from eastern civilizations, such as Persia.
From a blend of classical, Christian, and eastern cultures, the Byzantine
Empire developed a distinct culture of its own. Between 500 and 1200 A.D.,
it ranked as one of the most advanced civilizations in the world. During
this period, it had a higher standard of living than western Europe.
Byzantine art, ideas, and practices spread to neighboring lands. They later
shaped the development of Russia and other eastern European nations.
Foundation of the Empire
During the 300'S A.D., the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire grew in
wealth and importance. As the Roman Empire in the West declined, Roman
leaders began to regard the east as the center of the empire's future
greatness.
Beginnings
About 324 A.D., the Roman emperor Constantine decided to move the capital of
the Roman Empire to a new location farther east. He selected the Greek town
of Byzantium as the site for the new capital.
The most important reason for his choice was Byzantium's favorable location.
The Roman Empire depended on trade, and the most prosperous trade- centers
were in the empire's eastern provinces. Byzantium was situated at the
crossroads of important land and water trade routes in this region. The site
also could be easily defended against invaders.
It took six years to build the new capital, which was named Constantinople
in honor of the emperor. Constantine wanted his capital to resemble Rome. He
built government buildings, forums, palaces, and arenas on a lavish scale.
Since Constantinople was to be a center of Christianity, many churches and
shrines were also constructed.
The establishment of Constantinople laid the basis for Byzantine
civilization. A further step in the development of the Byzantine Empire took
place in 395 A.D. At that time the Roman Empire split into the Roman Empire
of the West and the Roman Empire of the East. The western part was ruled
from Rome, while the eastern part was governed from Constantinople. The
eastern part then evolved into a separate empire.
The Byzantines were not a definite ethnic group, or a large group of people
having common traits and customs. Instead, they were made up of a variety of
nationalities and religions. The major group was Greek in nationality and
Eastern Orthodox in religion. The Greeks were located primarily in Greece
and western Asia Minor, the central areas of the Byzantine Empire. There
were also a variety of non-Greeks living in the surrounding areas of the
empire. These people were Syrians, Egyptians, Armenians, Jews, Persians,
Slavs, Arabs, and Turks. Many of these groups resented the dominance of
Greek culture. They wanted to keep their own languages and cultural
traditions.
The Byzantines always considered themselves to be Romans living in the
eastern Roman Empire. I In the early years of the empire, the Byzantine
emperors were Roman and spoke Latin. Many aristocratic Roman families
settled in Constantinople after Constantine offered to build them homes and
palaces like the ones they had in Rome. However, regardless of their
nationality, the majority of Constantinople's people spoke Greek. The
emperors and aristocrats eventually did the same. In time, those who were
not Greek accepted Greek ways.
Religious Conflict
Religious disputes divided Christianity in the east. As the first Christian
emperor, Constantine took the lead in promoting doctrinal unity within
Christianity. He called and presided over the first important church council
held at Nicaea in 325 A.D. Acting as both a political leader and a protector
of the Church, Constantine placed the power of the government behind church
decisions. Later Byzantine emperors would follow Constantine's practice of
intervening in church affairs.
After Constantine"s rule ended, conflicts over church doctrines continued to
divide the people of the Byzantine Empire. Theological arguments were not
restricted to the clergy, or church officials, only. The laity, or church
members who are not clergy, talked about theology with great enthusiasm in
their homes and shops. Visitors to Constantinople saw shoppers in the market
places having heated discussions about such topics as the exact relationship
of Jesus the Son, to God the Father. Such arguments often became political
issues and led to fights and riots.
Justinian
The Byzantine Empire reached its greatest height under the emperor
Justinian, who ruled from 527 to 565 A.D. Justinian was born in Macedonia, a
western province of the empire. He was the son of a prosperous peasant
family. As a young man at the court of his uncle, Emperor Justin 1,
Justinian was trained in law, music, theology, and architecture. Later, he
served as a commander in the Byzantine army. In 527 A.D. Justin made his
nephew the co-ruler. A few months later, the old emperor died, and Justinian
became the sole ruler.
Theodora
Justinian's wife, Theodora, was beautiful, intelligent, and ambitious. She
was an actress when Justinian met her. The people of the empire held
actresses in low esteem. In spite of court objections, Justinian married
Theodora. She began to assist him in ruling the empire.
As empress, Theodora worked to improve the social standing of women. She had
Justinian issue a decree allowing a wife the right to own land equal to her
dowry, or the wealth she brought with her when she married. Her efforts
enabled widows to raise and support their children without government
interference. Theodora also promoted charitable work among the poor of
Constantinople.
Theodora took an active part in political life. She often was involved in
the appointment or dismissal of government officials. In this way, she used
her power to reward her friends and punish her enemies. Theodora's political
wisdom, at one point, helped save Justinian's throne. In 532 A.D. a revolt
in Constantinople threatened the government. Justinian's advisers told the
emperor to leave the city. However, Theodora persuaded the emperor to stay
and fight, rather than flee. Justinian and his troops crushed the uprising,
killing 30,000 of the rebels. This victory further strengthened Justinian's
power as emperor.
Military Campaigns
During Justinian's reign, the Byzantines faced a serious military threat
from the East. The Sassanian empire of Persia, under Chosroes I, grew in
strength and threatened to conquer the eastern provinces of the Byzantine
Empire. The Byzantines rallied their forces and threw back the Persians.
Justinian gained a brief period of security for the eastern borders by
agreeing to pay tribute in return for peace.
Justinian next turned his attention to the west, where he wanted to restore
the Roman Empire. Under the general, Belisarius, the Byzantine armies were
strengthened and reorganized. Between 533 and 555 A.D., they fought a series
of wars against the Vandals in North Africa, the Ostrogoths in Italy, and
the Visigoths in southern Spain.. The Byzantines succeeded in conquering
these Germanic groups, and in extending Byzantine rule in the west. However,
the price of regaining the old Roman Empire was very high. The wars
exhausted most of the Byzantine resources. The treasury was bankrupt by the
time Justinian died. There were few funds left for a defense of the eastern
borders where the Persian threat was renewed. Within a generation of
Justinian's death, the Byzantine Empire lost its western territories to new
invaders.
Law, Religion, and Art
Justinian also shaped the development of Byzantine law, religion, and art.
Shortly after becoming emperor, he appointed a commission to codify, or
classify, the empire's Roman laws. For centuries, these laws had accumulated
without organization or classification.
The commission was made up of ten scholars headed by a legal expert named
Tribonian. For more than six years, the commission collected and organized
vast numbers of laws. It threw out the ones that were outdated, simplified
many, and put the remainder into -categories. The commission's work was
recorded in a collection of books known as the Corpus of Civil Law, or the
Justinian Code. This monumental work preserved the Roman legal heritage and
passed it on to future generations. Over time, it has had a great impact on
the legal systems of many countries.
Justinian further strengthened the ties between church and state. He settled
doctrinal disputes and continued a policy of trying to unify the empire
under one church organization. Jews and non-Greek Christians were sometimes
persecuted. To stamp out the last remnants of paganism, Justinian closed the
school of philosophy in Athens.
Under Justinian, Byzantine art and architecture thrived and achieved their
distinct character. The emperor ordered the construction of new roads,
fortresses, aqueducts, monasteries, and other buildings. His most famous
project was the church of Hagia Sophia, "Holy Wisdom," in Constantinople.
The largest and most beautiful church in the empire, Hagia Sophia still
stands today as one of the world's great architectural landmarks.
Struggle and Survival
After Justinian's death, the Byzantine Empire entered a period of decline.
Invaders attacked from all sides, defeated the empire's once-powerful
armies, and captured parts of Byzantine territory. At the same time,
religious conflicts and political rivalries for the Byzantine throne sapped
the empire's strength from within.
Invasions
During the late 500's A.D., the Byzantine Empire faced many invaders.
Lombards from Germany occupied Italy. Slavs, Avars, and Bulgars invaded the
Balkan Peninsula. Persian attacks in the -east also threatened the empire.
Byzantine defeat seemed certain, until 610 A.D., when a new leader emerged.
The general Heraclius, son of the Byzantine governor of North Africa, seized
the throne and was crowned emperor. Immediately he began political and
military reforms to save the empire. He reorganized the countryside into
military provinces under the control of generals. With this reform, military
governments took the place of civilian governments in an attempt to improve
the empire's security. Heraclius counted on small farmers to build a new
army. In return for their services, he gave them land. Herachus's reforms
worked so well that they lasted for over 500 years.
While Heraclius was strengthening the empire, Persian armies invaded Syria,
Palestine, and Egypt. In 626 A.D. they reached the walls of Constantinople.
Heraclius then counterattacked, defeated the Persians, and drove them out of
Byzantine territory. The Byzantines, however, did not enjoy peace for very
long. A new enemy attacked them in 634 A.D. The Arabs, a group from the
Middle East, invaded the outlying areas of the empire. These people were
Muslims, or followers of the religion known as Islam. The aims of their
military conquest were to spread the teachings of Islam and to acquire new
wealth. During the 630's A.D., Arab armies gained victories over Syria and
Palestine and continued their expansion into North Africa in the west and
Persia in the east.
The Arabs, however, were not strong enough to conquer Constantinople and its
surrounding area. They laid siege to the Byzantine capital from 674 to 678
A.D. The Byzantine fleet finally defeated the Arabs and halted the Muslim
advance into Europe. In fighting their opponents, the Byzantines used Greek
fire, a chemical mixture that ignited when it came into contact with fire.
It burned the skin and was not easily put out. Greek fire was the first
secret weapon in history. The Byzantines guarded the secret so carefully
that its exact formula is still unknown.
Although the Byzantines stopped the Arabs at Constantinople, they were
unable to regain their lost territories in the Middle East and North Africa.
The Arabs made these areas part of a new Islamic empire. They promised to
establish law and order, as well as religious freedom, in the regions. The
Byzantines frequently persecuted Syrian and Egyptian Christians who belonged
to non-Greek Orthodox churches. As a result, many of these Christians
welcomed the Arabs as their liberators.
After the Arab conquests, the Byzantine Empire was reduced to the
territories that were primarily Greek. Byzantine culture lost much of its
international character and became even more Greek. Greek also took the
place of Latin as the official language of the government.
Religious Controversy
During the 700's and 800's A.D., a major religious crisis divided the empire
and drew it into civil war. This crisis was about the use of icons, or
sacred pictures or images, in church worship. Although Christians had
disagreed about this practice since the 200's A.D., they had never allowed
it to seriously divide them.
But by the 700's A.D., the use of icons had become a political issue. In 726
A.D., Emperor Leo III issued a decree that all images and paintings should
be removed from churches. He believed that the use of icons encouraged
superstition and the worship of idols.
Leo's action sparked what is known as the iconoclastic controversy, a
dispute that divided, the empire into two opposing groups. Leo's supporters
were known as iconoclasts, or image breakers. They were military leaders,
government officials, and many of the people living in Asia Minor. Many
iconoclasts used force in carrying out the emperor's decree. However,
important church leaders and most of the people in other regions were
against the removal of icons. Rioting in favor of having icons broke out in
Constantinople and other areas. The emperor saw these disturbances as a
challenge to his authority. He acted to put down the demonstrations and to
keep church leaders who favored icons from gaining too much political power
or influence.
The leading champion of icons was the Byzantine theologian, John of
Damascus. Although a resident of the Islamic Empire, he wrote many religious
articles defending the use of icons. The supporters of icons also received
strong backing from the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church. The Pope's
involvement in the controversy strained relations between the eastern and
western churches.
A number of emperors after Leo supported iconoclasm, but public opinion
backed those who favored icons and helped them to win the struggle. In 787
A.D., a church council at Nicaea approved the use of icons and declared
iconoclasm a heresy. Shortly thereafter, Empress Irene 2 permitted the use
of icons as long as they did not receive the worship due to God. In 843
A.D., the Eastern Orthodox Church reached a final settlement. It permitted
the use of pictures in worship, but not statues.
Rise and Decline
During the 800's A.D., the Byzantine Empire entered a period of prosperity
and expansion under a new dynasty known as the Macedonians. The most
successful emperor during this era was Basil II, who ruled from 976 to 1025
A.D. Under his leadership, the empire regained some of its lost territory in
the Middle East, and conquered the Balkan kingdom of Bulgaria. Basil also
introduced reforms to slow the rising power of the landed aristocracy, and
to improve conditions for poor farmers.
During the late 1000's A.D., the Byzantine Empire entered another period of
decline. In 1071 A.D. the Normans, a warrior people from northern Europe,
seized Byzantine lands in southern Italy. To fight the Normans, the
Byzantines called on Venice, an Italian trading city on the Adriatic Sea.'
In spite of Venice's assistance, the Byzantines were unable to remove the
Normans.
In the same year, the Seljuk Turks, a Muslim people from central Asia,
defeated the Byzantines in the Battle of Manzikert. They gained control of
Asia Minor, Syria, and Palestine, and threatened to take Constantinople.
While facing these invasions, Byzantines set up a new dynasty under the
Comneni family. The most famous Comneni ruler was Alexius I, who ruled from
1081 to 1118 A.D. Shortly after becoming emperor, Alexius asked Pope Urban
II and the Christian kingdoms of western Europe to help the Byzantine Empire
defend Christianity against the Seljuks. After some delay, the Pope sent the
first of a series of military expeditions known as the crusades against the
Muslim Seljuks. However, the primary goal of the crusaders was to regain the
Holy Land in Palestine for Western Christianity, not to protect the
Byzantines. When the First Crusade traveled east in 1096 A.D., Alexius was
disappointed and angry that it was not placed under his command. With their
own leaders, the crusaders marched into Syria and Palestine, conquered the
Seljuks, and set up independent states. However, the success of the First
Crusade allowed Alexius to recover territory in Asia Minor.
East-West Rivalry
The crusades increased tension between Byzantine Christians and western
Christians. However, friction between east and west was not a new
development. Ever since the time of Constantine, cultural and religious
differences had slowly been drawing the two areas apart.
Early Disputes
Since the 300'S A.D., the eastern and western churches had disagreed on a
number of issues. As centuries passed, these disagreements deepened. The
most serious issue concerned the source of religious authority. The Pope in
Rome and the Patriarch of Constantinople did not agree on their roles in the
Christian Church. The Pope argued that he was the supreme leader of the
Church. The Patriarch refused to recognize this claim. In addition, the two,
church leaders disagreed over points of doctrine. They challenged each other
for control of the new churches in the Balkan Peninsula.'
At the same time, relations were strained between the Byzantine emperor and
the Pope. In the 800's A.D., the Byzantine emperors failed to aid the Pope
during the Lombard invasions of Italy. As a result, the Pope broke his ties
with the Byzantine emperor and turned to the Franks, a Germanic Catholic
group in western Europe, for military protection. In time, the Pope gave the
title of emperor to the Frankish king. This action made the Byzantine
emperor even more bitter toward the Pope and western Europe. Finally, in
1054 A.D., doctrinal and political differences led to a schism, or
separation, of the Church into the Roman Catholic Church in the west and the
Eastern Orthodox Church in the east.
Economic Rivalry
The crusades led to a rivalry between the Byzantines and western Europeans
for control of trade in the eastern Mediterranean. The outcome of this
rivalry permanently weakened the Byzantine Empire and embittered relations
between east and west for years to come.
During the 1100's A.D., the economic fortunes of Venice rose. Venetian
merchants were eager to capture Constantinople's prosperous trade in the
Middle East. In 1204 A.D., Pope Innocent III called the Fourth Crusade
against the Muslims. The Venetians agreed to transport the crusaders, mostly
French nobles, to the Holy Land. But first, the Venetians required the
crusaders to help in an attack on the Byzantine Empire. After a fierce
battle, a combined force of crusaders and Venetians captured Constantinople
in April 1204 A.D. For three days, the attackers burned and looted the city;
many residents were killed. They stole valuable objects from palaces,
churches, libraries, homes, and shops. Many priceless manuscripts and works
of art were either taken to Venice, lost, or destroyed. The actions of the
crusaders and Venetians were so brutal that the Pope publicly condemned
them. He wrote:
These defenders of Christ, who should have turned their swords
only against the infidels [Muslims], have bathed in Christian blood.
They have respected neither religion, nor age, nor sex. . . . It was
not enough for them to squander [waste] the treasures of the
[Byzantine] Empire and to rob private individuals, whether great
or small. . . . They have dared to lay their hands on the wealth of
the churches. They have been seen tearing from the altars the
silver adornments, breaking them in fragments, over which they
quarrelled, violating the sanctuaries, carrying away the icons,
crosses, and relics.*
Latin Empire
The western Christians deposed, or removed, the Byzantine emperor and
established a Latin empire. From the beginning, the Latin Empire had little
chance for survival. The Fourth Crusade had stripped Constantinople of its
trade and wealth. The Greek population, aided by the neighboring Bulgarians,
actively resisted western rule. During the time the western Christians held
Constantinople and the surrounding provinces, Greek nobles, church
officials, and soldiers fled to areas that were still free from western
control. In these places, they set up rival kingdoms and continued Byzantine
culture.
The most important of the Greek kingdoms was located in the Asia Minor city
of Nicaea. There the Greeks resumed the struggle against the western
Christians. In 1261 A.D., Michael Palaeologus, a Greek noble, formed an army
and captured Constantinople. The Byzantine Empire and its Eastern Orthodox
Church were reestablished. Palaeologus became Emperor Michael VIII and
founded the Palaeologi dynasty, which ruled the. empire for nearly 200
years.
End of the Byzantines
The newly restored Byzantine Empire was weak and needed time for its economy
to recover. The empire was also invaded, and lost more of its territory. The
Serbs and Bulgars moved into Byzantine territory in the Balkans, while
Muslim invaders from central Asia, known as Ottoman Turks, began to take
over Byzantine lands in the east. By the late 1300's A.D., the empire
consisted only of Constantinople and part of mainland Greece. The population
of the city dropped to less than 100,000 persons. As its resources became
scarce, the Byzantine economy began to decline. Gradually, the empire's
trade came under the control of Venice and other Italian city-states.
In 1453 A.D., the Ottoman sultan, or ruler, Mehmet II, brought 150,000
soldiers to Constantinople. The Ottomans laid siege to the city, using
cannon against its walls. The Ottoman fleet, however, could not enter
Constantinople's major harbor, the Golden Horn, because of heavy iron chains
that guarded its entrance. The sailors finally pulled small boats overland
to enter the harbor. The Ottomans soon had the upper hand, but the Byzantine
emperor, Constantine XI, refused to surrender. The Byzantines fought until
the emperor himself was slain.
On May 29, 1453 A.D., Mehmet II victoriously entered the city. He made it
the capital of the new Ottoman Empire and converted Hagia Sophia into a
mosque, or Muslim house of worship. At the same time, Mehmet promised to
protect the Greek Christians and to allow them freedom to conduct their own
community affairs. He installed a new Greek patriarch to supervise the
political and religious life of the Greek Christians . Thus, the
1,000-year-old Byzantine Empire passed into history.
From 500 to 800 A.D., the Byzantine Empire remained a center of civilization
at a time when most of western Europe was in a period of decline. It
preserved Greek philosophy and literature, Roman political and legal ideas,
and Christian theology. Later the Byzantine Empire shielded much of
Christian Europe from the attacks of Muslim invaders, such as the Arabs and
Turks.
At the same time, the empire passed Greek philosophy and Byzantine political
institutions to these Muslim peoples. Above all, the Byzantines gave a
unique art form and Eastern Orthodoxy to Eastern Europe. Byzantine art also
shaped cultures in western Europe and the Middle East.
Byzantine Life
Byzantine society was divided into a hierarchy, or ranked order, of social
groups. However, few barriers existed to prevent a person moving from one
group to another. As a result, Byzantine life was characterized by variety
and change.
Family Life
The center of social life for most Byzantines was the family. Both church
and government laws supported marriage as a sacred
institution. Although divorce was not prohibited, it was difficult to
obtain. Remarriage was not socially accepted. Repeated remarriage brought
severe penalties from the Church.
Women were required, by Byzantine custom, to live partly in seclusion. They
often had their own separate rooms at home and in churches. Most women
performed household tasks. When they were in public, they sometimes veiled
their faces.
Although women did not have equality with men, the law guaranteed them
certain rights. Through the efforts of Empress Theodora, the right to legal
guardianship of children in the event of widowhood or remarriage was granted
to women. A woman also had the right to control all of her late husband's
property.
Some Byzantine women were able to overcome social restrictions. They became
well educated and, in some cases, operated businesses and managed estates. A
number of women governed the empire as regents, or temporary rulers. Some
even ruled in their own right as empresses.
High Society
The emperor and the imperial family held the most respected and powerful
positions in Byzantine society. They were surrounded by a court of advisers
and subordinates. The orders of the emperor were carried -out by civilian
and military officials who served in various government posts. These
officials competed for power and influence. They often plotted to name or
depose emperors. Other influential groups were the leaders of the Eastern
Orthodox Church, the land owning aristocracy, and wealthy merchants.
Wealthy Byzantines, in both city and country, lived in well-built stone or
brick houses. Many homes had two stories and were built in the Roman style
with courtyards. The rooms were elaborately decorated and filled with
luxurious
furnishings. In their homes, wealthy Byzantines held lavish banquets and
parties.
Farmers.
Most Byzantines were farmers, shepherds, or laborers. They lived in villages
of small one-room huts made of wood or brick. After the reforms of Heraclius
in the early 600's A.D., the majority of farmers owned their own land. They
raised crops and livestock for themselves as well as for nobles and church
officials. The heavy taxes they paid supported the government and the
emperor" s court. Young farmers served in the army. Village women carried
out household chores. They wove cloth on hand looms and worked in the
fields.
By the 800's A.D. a powerful group of landed aristocrats had emerged in the
countryside. They bought up the properties of small farmers, who were then
hired to work the land. The government passed laws to protect the lands of
small farmers and to force the aristocrats to pay taxes. But these laws were
unsuccessful. Wealthy landowners continued to exploit, or take advantage of,
small farmers. As a result, poor people began to lose faith in the
government as a defender of their interests. In turn, the government no
longer depended on the farmers to serve in the army. Instead, it used
mercenaries, or hired soldiers.
Commerce
Although the Byzantine economy was basically agricultural, commerce thrived
in cities like Constantinople and Thessalonika. There, merchants and
artisans were organized into groups based on a particular trade or
enterprise. With the help of these groups, the Byzantine government strictly
controlled the economy. The government set prices, wages, and hours of
business; regulated working conditions; and made rules for trade.
The major Byzantine business was textiles. During the 500's A.D., silkworms
were brought to the Byzantine Empire from China. Thus began the production
of silk. Silk was used in the making of luxurious clothing and furniture for
the Church and the emperor's court. The government controlled the production
of silk so that its secrets would not reach the West.
Recreation
The Byzantines enjoyed a variety of recreational activities. They held
festivals to remember the holy days on the church calendar. Many religious
occasions, such as baptism and marriage, were important family celebrations.
The government organized public pageants and circuses for the poor.
The people of Constantinople were divided between two competing groups, the
Blues and the Greens. These groups held athletic contests and chariot races
in the Hippodrome, a 40,000 seat arena. Heated rivalries between them took
up a great deal of attention and energy. The Blues received the support of
the aristocrats, while the Greens were backed by the poor. Even the emperors
had to choose sides. Occasionally, when politics became involved in these
contests, riots broke out in the arena and spread to the city streets. After
the 600's A.D. the political role of the Blues and Greens declined.
Church and State
From its beginnings, the Byzantine Empire was a Christian empire. Eastern
Orthodoxy was the official religion, and all Byzantines were required to be
Christians. Church and government affairs were closely linked. As a result,
theological disputes often became important. political issues.
Emperor and Clergy
Regarded as Christ's representatives on earth, Byzantine emperors had a
religious as well as a political role. Beginning in the 400'S A.D., they
were crowned by the Patriarch of Constantinople and took an oath to defend
the Eastern Orthodox faith. Emperors appointed top church officials,
including the Patriarch of Constantinople. As a result, emperors had
extensive control over the Church's leadership. In religious services, the
clergy prayed for God to bless the emperor and to give victory to the
Byzantine armies.
Monasteries and convents played an important role in Byzantine life. They
were first formed in the 300'S A.D. by groups of Christians who wanted to
lead holy lives apart from the world. In 379 A.D., a leading bishop named
Basil made a list of rules for organizing these communities. This list,
known as the Basilian Rule, became the model for Eastern Orthodox religious
life.
In addition to prayer and worship, monks and nuns helped the poor, provided
hospitals, and ran schools for needy children. Monks also preserved
classical manuscripts and translated the Bible and other religious writings
into several eastern European languages. They believed that more people
would accept Christianity if the Bible and church rituals were presented to
them in their own language.
Missionaries
The Church began missionary work that spread both Orthodox Christianity and
Byzantine culture to neighboring lands. The people who benefited the most
from this effort were the Slavs, an Indo-European people who settled in
areas of eastern Europe north of the Byzantine Empire.
The most famous Byzantine missionaries were the brothers Cyril and
Methodius. They left Constantinople and traveled among the western group of
Slavs during the 860's A.D. They developed an alphabet for the Slavic
languages based on a modified form of the Greek alphabet. It was called
Cyrillic, in honor of Cyril, and is still used today by the Russians,
Ukrainians, Bulganans , and -Serbs. Cyril and Methodius took with them
translations of the Bible and the worship service of the Eastern Orthodox
Church. As a result of Byzantine efforts, Orthodox Christianity became the
religion of most Slavs.
Religion and Foreign Affairs
Religion affected the foreign policy of the Byzantine Empire. The
long-standing dispute between the eastern and western churches prevented a
united resistance to the Muslim invaders. The Fourth Crusade, as well as
claims by the Pope, embittered the Byzantine clergy and laity. They
developed a hostility toward the west that blocked future attempts to unite
Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. After 1261 A.D. Most of the
Palaeologi emperors favored unification of the churches in order to win
western support against the Muslims. However, they failed to reach this goal
because of the strong opposition of Byzantine clergy and laity.
Learning, Literature, and Law
Upper- and middle-income groups in the Byzantine Empire were well educated.
Primary instruction was available in cities and in some rural villages.
Larger cities had institutions of higher education. The University of
Constantinople, established in 425 A.D., was supported by the government. It
became an important center of learning during the Middle Ages. In addition
to government-supported education, the Church provided religious schools in
many areas to train priests and scholars. The leading center of theological
studies was the patriarchal academy in Constantinople.
In spite of the central role of the Church in Byzantine society, the content
of a Byzantine education was not strictly religious. Secular
subjects-medicine, law, philosophy, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy,
grammar, and music-were taught in schools and academies. Wealthy people
sometimes hired distinguished tutors to instruct their children. Tutors
played an especially important role in the education of girls and women, who
were usually not admitted to schools and universities. However, some women
were trained in professions such as medicine. For example, in the 1100's
A.D., a woman doctor is mentioned in a description of a Byzantine hospital.
In literature, the role of the Church was dominant. The salvation of the
soul and obedience to God's will were major concerns for Byzantines. As a
result, Byzantine literature consisted mainly of hymns, poems, and other
writings in praise of Christ and his mother Mary. Stories about the lives of
the saints were very popular. They read like novels and told of dramatic
events, travel, adventure, and miracles. At the same time, they were
intended to teach moral lessons.
As a result of their Roman heritage, the Byzantines were interested in law.
The emperor, as absolute ruler, made and issued laws. However, certain
limits were placed on the use of this power. For example, the emperor was
expected to respect both the teachings of the Church and the principles of
the Justinian Code.
The growing influence of religion, as well as changes in Byzantine society,
brought modifications in the Justinian Code. In the 700's A.D., a new
collection of laws called the Ekologa reduced the number of crimes that
called for the death
penalty. Another important collection, Basilica, was completed in the 900's
A.D. It made the law easier to understand.
Judges appointed by the emperor administered justice in the civil courts.
These courts applied the law to ordinary citizens. judges presented their
decisions in writing and were required to sign them.
Art and Architecture
Byzantine art was based on classical and early Christian artistic styles.
The art of ancient Greece and Rome stressed the reality of the material
world. Some Byzantine art showed this influence with fully formed, lifelike
figures. However, the major influence was the early Christian tradition. It
reflected the viewpoint of the east, which stressed spiritual values. Most
Byzantine art, therefore, was devoted to religious subjects. Flat,
two-dimensional figures were drawn according to set patterns that emphasized
their holiness.
Byzantine artists served the needs of the emperor's court and the Orthodox
Church. Many were monks, whose works were required to be anonymous, or
without the artist's name. This was done so that praise for a work of art
would go to God, not to the individual artist.
Icons were the most popular art form. They were made on wood for display in
churches, shrines, and homes. In Orthodox churches, the
sanctuary, or altar area, was separated from the rest of the church by an
iconostasis, a high thin wall covered with icons. Icons were also placed
in other areas of the churches. Iconography, or the making of icons,
suffered a setback during the iconoclastic controversy. At that time, many
icons were destroyed. Few new ones were made because many Byzantine artists
had fled from Constantinople to Italy. When icons were once again permitted,
iconography again became a flourishing art form.
The Byzantines also developed an art form known as mosaic. Mosaics were made
by fitting small flat pieces of stone or colored glass in mortar to form a
picture or design. Mosaic artists used vivid colors to add brilliance to the
images that they created. They also used a special technique in arranging
the colored pieces. A
visitor to Hagia Sophia described the church's mosaics in the following way:
As you move, the figures seem to move too. You could swear that their eyes
are turning and shining and that their garments are rustling ... the
Byzantine mosaicist [artist] has succeeded in creating the illusion that his
jig-saw puzzle has come to life.
Byzantine artists also excelled in making luxury crafts. They produced
beautiful products in embroidery, enamel, ivory, silver, and gold. They also
illuminated, or decorated, manuscript pages with elaborate designs and
miniature pictures in brilliant colors.
The Byzantines were also noted for their architecture. Their most important
accomplishment in this field was the construction of domed churches with
richly decorated interiors. Hagia Sophia in Constantinople is considered the
most magnificent of the Byzantine churches. Rectangular in shape, the church
has a huge circular dome over its central part.
Erecting domes over rectangular or square buildings was a major
architectural advance. Before the Byzantines, domes could only be built on
circular walls. The Byzantine innovation gave designers more flexibility in
the use of space. The Byzantines later built cross-shaped, multidomed
churches. A fine example of this style is St. Mark's Cathedral in Venice,
Italy.
Like the empire itself, Byzantine art and architecture went through periods
of advance and decline. But their influence lasted long after the fall of
Constantinople and spread beyond the borders of the empire. Byzantine styles
in art and architecture later affected Russian, Balkan, and Turkish
cultures. Byzantine art forms are still used today in Eastern Orthodox
church buildings throughout the world.
Early Russia
After-the fall of Constantinople in 1453 A.D., the leadership of the Eastern
Orthodox world passed from the Byzantines to the Russians. The Russians were
the largest group among the Slavs who lived in eastern Europe. Because of
their location, the Russians had been in close contact with the Byzantines
since the 900's A.D.
This relationship made a lasting mark on the development of Russian history.
The Russians borrowed much from the highly developed Byzantine civilization.
On the foundation of Byzantine religion, law, and culture, the Russians
built a new civilization. They also borrowed heavily from western European
and Asian cultures. As a result of these different influences, Russia never
became a completely eastern or western country.
Environment Geography has played an important role in Russian history. Since
their earliest days, the Russians have controlled a vast area of plains,
forests, lakes, and rivers where Europe meets Asia. Most of their territory
is a great plain. This plain, called the steppe, begins in Europe and
extends eastward into Asia. The steppe has made it easy for invaders from
both Asia and Europe to move into Russian territory. It was the first site
of Russian civilization. North of the steppe is a thickly forested region.
This area was not heavily settled until after the 1200's A.D. However, its
secure location soon made it the country's political center.
Throughout Russian history, rivers have been very important. The major
rivers of Russia flow from north to south and empty into either the Black
Sea or the Caspian Sea. Rivers have been used for trade and transportation
and have helped unite the country. The most important centers of Russian
history have been located on or near major rivers.
In spite of its many waterways, early Russia was a landlocked country,
hundreds of miles from the open sea. In the 1500's A.D. Russia began to
expand its borders in order to find outlets to the sea.
Another important geographic feature of Russia is its northern location.
Much of the country is located farther north than most other centers of
civilization. Because of its interior location, the country is not affected
by warm moist winds from the oceans. Instead, freezing arctic winds blow
across the land from early fall to late spring. As a result, most of Russia
has a climate with great extremes of temperature in summer and winter, short
spring and fall seasons, and small amounts of rainfall.
This location and climate have brought many hardships to the Russians. For
example; crops are very difficult to grow in many areas due to poor weather
conditions. Also, transportation is hindered because most of Russia's
waterways are frozen nearly year-round.
Russian Origins
Historians know little about the origins of the Slavs, the larger group to
which the Russians belong. Some believe the Slavs came from what is now
eastern Poland. Others think they may have been farmers in the Black Sea
region. It is known that by 500 A.D., the Slavs had separated into smaller
groups and had settled in different areas of eastern Europe. One group,
known as the West Slavs, lived in the marshlands, plains, and mountains of
east-central Europe. They successfully fought the Germans to the west and
the Scandinavians to the north for control of this territory. Today, the
descendants of the West Slavs are the peoples of Poland and Czechoslovakia.
Another group, known as the South Slavs, settled in the Balkan Peninsula.
Today, their descendants are the peoples of Yugoslavia.
The largest group of Slavs, called East Slavs, lived in the land near the
Black Sea between the Dniester and the Dnieper Rivers. From 500 to 800 A.D.,
they moved eastward toward the Volga River. These people gradually
intermarried with Asiatic and Nordic peoples who later invaded the area.
From the East Slavs came the peoples who are known today as Russians,
Ukrainians, and Belorussians.
Early Russians
The early Russians lived in villages made up of related families. They
cleared the land for farming and shared their tools and produce. Forests
provided the Russians with timber, which they used to build their izbas, or
log cabins. Many izbas had wooden gables and window frames decorated with
painted carvings of flowers and animals. Skilled artisans also used wood to
make musical instruments, boats, and images of favorite gods.
The Russians used the many rivers in their area for transportation and
trade. They set up trading towns along the riverbanks. By the 800's A.D., a
trade route ran from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Black Sea in the
south.
Kiev
The early Russians were not warlike. During the second half of the 800's
A.D., they relied on the Varangians, a group of warriors and traders from
Scandinavia, to protect their trade routes. The Varangians not only provided
military support, they also laid the foundations of Russian government.
The arrival of the Varangians is recorded in the Russian Chronicles, a
collection of Russian history, tales, and legends written in the 1100's A.D.
According to the Russian Chronicles, in 862 A.D. the people of Novgorod, a
northern town on the Russian trade route, asked a Varangian leader named
Rurik to be their prince. Upon Rurik's death, another Varangian named Oleg
succeeded him. Oleg moved south and set up the first organized Russian
state. He established his capital at Kiev, the southernmost town on the
trade route. Kiev stood on a hill overlooking the Dnieper River and was
located close to where the forests met the steppe. Kiev was in a good
location to protect its merchant ships.
Control of Kiev enabled Oleg to dominate the north-south water trade route.
Towns along the route were brought together under his leadership. Kiev soon
became the chief political and commercial center among the Russian
territories. The rulers of Kiev, known as "'Grand Princes," conducted raids
against Constantinople. They were attracted by the wealth and civilization
of the Byzantine capital. In 911 A.D. a treaty ended these raids and
established trade between the Byzantines and the Russians. During the summer
months, Russian merchants carried furs, honey, and other forest products by
boat to Constantinople. There they traded their goods for cloth, wine,
weapons, and jewelry.
Early Russian Government
By 900 A.D. the Russians had organized into a confederation of city-states
and principalities, or territories ruled by princes. Each region enjoyed
local self-government; however, they all paid special respect to the grand
prince of Kiev. The grand prince collected tribute from the local princes to
support his court and army. The major duties of these princes were to
administer justice and to defend the frontiers. The princes were assisted by
councils of wealthy merchants and landed nobles, who were known as boyars.
Veches, or assemblies, represented all free, adult male citizens. They
handled daily affairs and had the power to accept or remove princes.
These three institutions-the princely office, the council, and the
veche-varied in power from region to region. In the northeastern
territories, the princes wielded a great deal of political power. In the
southeastern areas, the boyars had the greatest political influence. In
Novgorod and a few northern trading towns and cities, the veches
overshadowed both princes and boyars. In these areas, the veches came close
to establishing a tradition of representative government in Russia. However,
later princes limited the powers of the veches.
Economic Prosperity
During the 1000's A.D., Russian trade prospered and grew as a result of
contacts with the Byzantines and Muslims. Kiev's merchants exchanged money
for goods and enjoyed a sophisticated urban culture. Archeologists and
historians believe that Kiev was an important trading link between Europe
and Asia, and between Scandinavia and the Middle East. Recent excavations in
Sweden unearthed more than 200,000 Arabic and Byzantine coins. Such a
discovery shows the extensive amount of trade that passed through Kiev
during this period. By 1050 A.D. Russian civilization was more advanced than
the civilizations of any other western or Mediterranean culture. Only the
Byzantine and Islamic civilizations surpassed it.
Christianity in Russia
Before the late 900's A.D., the Russians honored nature spirits and
ancestors, and worshiped many Rods. The most popular gods were Perun, god of
thunder and lightning, and the Great Mother, goddess of the land and
harvest. Images of the gods were built on the highest ground outside the
villages.
Vladimir's Conversion
As a result of contact with the Byzantine Empire, many Russians were
influenced by Eastern Orthodoxy. Olga, a princess of Kiev, became the first
member of the Russian nobility to accept the faith. After her death, she was
made a saint of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Her grandson, Prince Vladimir I
of Kiev, decided to abandon paganism and to adopt a new religion that he
thought would help the Russians to become more civilized. An old Russian
legend states that Vladimir sent observers abroad to examine Judaism, Islam,
Roman Catholicism, and Eastern Orthodoxy. They were unimpressed by what they
witnessed until they came to Constantinople. There they were awed by the
beauty of Eastern Orthodox worship in the Hagia Sophia. When they returned
to Kiev, the observers persuaded Vladimir to convert to Eastern Orthodoxy.
In 989 A.D. Vladimir ordered the mass baptism of his people in the Dnieper
River. He then made Eastern Orthodoxy the official religion in his
territories. He also established closer ties between Kiev and Constantinople
by marrying the sister of the Byzantine emperor.
Orthodox Russia
Vladimir's acceptance of Eastern Orthodoxy gave the Russians a sense of
belonging to the civilized world. The new religion brought Byzantine culture
to Russia. Byzantine priests and bishops introduced the Russians to colorful
rituals and taught them the art of painting icons. The Russians learned to
write their language in the Cyrillic alphabet. Schools were established in
the towns for the sons of boyars, priests, and merchants. Byzantine
architects arrived in Kiev to build stone cathedrals and churches with
onion-shaped domes. Monasteries also were founded in the towns and
countryside, and attracted many of the new converts. By 1000 A.D. the
Eastern Orthodox Church in Russia had developed an organization and had won
the support of the people. It became known as the Russian Orthodox Church.
The acceptance of Eastern Orthodoxy, however, contributed to the isolation
of Russia from the outside world. Following the schism between the eastern
and western churches, Russia was separated from western Europe. Its people
lost contact with developments that took place in that area after 1200 A.D.
At the same time, the Byzantine practice of translating the Bible and
Orthodox church services into local languages had an important impact.
Because Russian scholars had translations of some classical and Christian
writings in their own language, they did not learn Greek or Latin. As a
result, they did not deepen their knowledge of the heritage of western
European civilization. Instead, they turned for inspiration to the
traditions of their own local culture.
Kievan Rulers
Vladimir I, who ruled from 980 to 1015 A.D., was one of the most important
grand princes of Kiev. Known for his skills as a warrior, he successfully
defended Russia's eastern frontiers against nomadic invaders. He also
expanded Russia's western borders by capturing lands in Poland and near the
Baltic Sea.
After Vladimir's death, his sons fought each other for the Kievan throne. In
1019 A.D. Yaroslav triumphed over his brothers and assumed full control of
the state. During his reign, Kiev reached the height of its cultural and
economic development. Skilled artisans and builders transformed the
appearance of the city with fortifications, gates, churches, and
monasteries.
Yaroslav encouraged the spread of learning and earned the title "'the Wise."
He collected books and brought scholars from Constantinople to Kiev.
Yaroslav was also a skilled diplomat. He negotiated alliances with western
European kingdoms. He arranged marriages for his relatives with members of
royal families in Poland, Norway, Hungary, and France.
Yaroslav's major achievement was the organization of Russian laws. He asked
the clergy to create a code of law based on local Slavic customs and
Byzantine law. Written primarily for the princes and merchants, the code
made crimes of property more serious than crimes against persons. By the
standards of the day, it was exceptionally mild regarding punishments. For
example, it did not provide for a death penalty.
Fall of Kiev
Struggles among princes for control of the throne broke out after Yaroslav's
death in 1054 A.D. During the next century, Kiev began a slow decline, with
only brief periods of recovery. Developments outside of Russia played an
important part in Kiev's misfortunes. The Fourth Crusade in 1204 A.D. and
the creation of a Latin state in Constantinople disrupted Russian trade with
the Byzantines. As a result, Kiev's economy was seriously weakened. The
final blow to Kiev took place in 1240 A.D., when Mongol invaders from
central Asia captured the city and completely destroyed it.
Mongols
The Mongols, or the Tatars as the Russians called them, defeated the armies
of the Russian principalities and conquered most of the country. During the
invasion, they sacked towns and villages and killed many people. After
establishing control, the Mongols allowed the Russians to practice
Christianity and to govern themselves. However, the Russian princes had to
pay tribute to the khan, or Mongol leader. Russians also had to serve in the
khan's armies. The Mongol invasion helped the Russians gain a sense of being
one people. However, they also became further isolated from the outside
world.
During this period the Russian Orthodox Church remained strong and preserved
Russian culture. As city life in the south of the country declined, Russian
monks began to move into the remote northern forests. There they founded
monasteries and churches. The monks were followed by farmers and artisans,
who were also trying to escape Mongol rule. These people became settlers in
the new towns and villages that soon developed around the monasteries.
Alexander Nevsky
After the fall of Kiev, the political center of Russia shifted north along
with the movement of population. In the late 1200's A. D. the principality
of Vladimir-Suzdal and the city of Novgorod became the strongest of the
Russian territories. They had been less affected by the Mongols than the
other Russian principalities and cities. However, they faced powerful
enemies along the Baltic coast-the Catholic Swedes and the Teutonic Knights,
a crusading order that had been formed in Palestine and later transferred to
northeastern Europe. Both groups wanted to 'force the Russians to accept
Roman Catholicism and western European culture.
In 1240 A.D., Alexander, the young prince of Novgorod, defeated the invading
Swedes beside the Neva River and won the title Nevsky, or "of the Neva. "
Two years later, he won a great victory over the Teutonic Knights on an icy
lake near the Baltic. Alexander Nevsky became known as a war hero. In 1252
A.D. he was made the prince of Vladimir-Suzdal. As prince, he paid visits to
the court of the khan, where he negotiated the easing of Mongol controls
over his
people. Because of his services to the nation, after his death in 1263 A.D.,
Alexander Nevsky was made a saint of the Russian Orthodox Church.
In the early 1300's A.D., Nevsky's youngest son Daniel became the ruler of
Moscow, a small, prosperous town that was located on important land and
water routes. Daniel's successors expanded the territory of Moscow. By the
late 1400"s A.D., Moscow had become the most powerful city in Russia. It was
soon to become the capital of the world's largest Eastern Orthodox Christian
state.
1. Identify: West Slavs, South Slavs, East Slavs, Varangians, Russian
Chronicles, Kiev, Olga, Vladimir, Yaroslav, Mongols, Alexander Nevsky,
Moscow.
1. Identify: Blues and Greens, Basil, Cyrillic.
1. Identify: Constantinople, Eastern Orthodoxy, Nicaea, Justinian,
Theodora, Sassanian, Belisarius, Tribonian, Corpus of Civil Law, Hagia
Sophia.
1. Identify: Franks, Venice, Michael VIII, Palaeo-
logi, Ottoman Turks, Mehmet II.
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Chapter 5
Chapter 5 for geocities
Chapter Five
Byzantines and Russians
The fall of Rome led to a new era in the history of the West. Historians ha=
ve called this era ""the Middle Ages." Lasting from about 500=
to 1500 A.D., the Middle Ages was a transition period between ancient and m=
odern times.
During the Middle Ages, the former Roman Empire was divided into three area=
s: the Byzantine Empire, the Islamic Empire, and western Europe. The Byzanti=
ne Empire lasted for 1,000 years and was the leading Chris=
tian civilization of the Middle ages. The Islamic Empire included the Middle=
East and North Africa. It was based on Islam a new religion that emerged in=
- the 600's A.D. Western Europe underwent. a cultural decline after the fall=
of Rome. Yet, by 1200 A.D., it had developed-a new civilization rooted in C=
hristianity.
From 500 to 1500 A.D., other civilizations flourished beyond the Mediterran=
ean world. In Africa and the Americas, a variety of peoples developed distin=
ctive ways of life. Early African and American achievements, however, were u=
nknown until the 1500's A.D.
By 500 A.D. Roman rule in the west had ended. The eastern part of the Roman=
Empire, however, survived and lasted about 1,000 years longer. It became kn=
own as the Byzantine Empire. At its height, the Byzantine Empire consisted o=
f most of the Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. It had more pe=
ople and was richer in economic resources than the old western empire. As a =
result, the Byzantine Empire was able to withstand invasions and to develop =
a flourishing civilization.
After the fall of Rome, the Byzantine Empire considered itself the heir of =
Roman power and traditions. Its capital, Constantinople, was known as "=
"New Rome." There, Byzantine rulers governed with the authority of=
Roman emperors. However, the Byzantine Empire was not simply a continuation=
of the old Roman Empire. Although the Byzantines preserved classical learni=
ng, they stressed the Greek, rather than the Latin, heritage. They also used=
Greek ideas to develop Christian theology, or religious teachings. Their fo=
rm of Christianity, known as Eastern Orthodoxy, played a major role in Byzan=
tine life. At the same time, the Byzantine Empire was open to cultural influ=
ences from eastern civilizations, such as Persia.
From a blend of classical, Christian, and eastern cultures, the Byzantine E=
mpire developed a distinct culture of its own. Between 500 and 1200 A.D., it=
ranked as one of the most advanced civilizations in the world. During this =
period, it had a higher standard of living than western Europe. Byzantine ar=
t, ideas, and practices spread to neighboring lands. They later shaped the d=
evelopment of Russia and other eastern European nations.
Foundation of the Empire
During the 300'S A.D., the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire grew in we=
alth and importance. As the Roman Empire in the West declined, Roman leaders=
began to regard the east as the center of the empire's future greatness.
Beginnings
About 324 A.D., the Roman emperor Constantine decided to move the capital o=
f the Roman Empire to a new location farther east. He selected the Greek tow=
n of Byzantium as the site for the new capital.
The most important reason for his choice was Byzantium's favorable location=
. The Roman Empire depended on trade, and the most prosperous trade- centers=
were in the empire's eastern provinces. Byzantium was situated at the cross=
roads of important land and water trade routes in this region. The site also=
could be easily defended against invaders.
It took six years to build the new capital, which was named Constantinople =
in honor of the emperor. Constantine wanted his capital to resemble Rome. He=
built government buildings, forums, palaces, and arenas on a lavish scale. =
Since Constantinople was to be a center of Christianity, many churches and s=
hrines were also constructed.
The establishment of Constantinople laid the basis for Byzantine civilizati=
on. A further step in the development of the Byzantine Empire took place in =
395 A.D. At that time the Roman Empire split into the Roman Empire of the We=
st and the Roman Empire of the East. The western part was ruled from Rome, w=
hile the eastern part was governed from Constantinople. The eastern part the=
n evolved into a separate empire.
The Byzantines were not a definite ethnic group, or a large group of people=
having common traits and customs. Instead, they were made up of a variety o=
f nationalities and religions. The major group was Greek in nationality and =
Eastern Orthodox in religion. The Greeks were located primarily in Greece an=
d western Asia Minor, the central areas of the Byzantine Empire. There were =
also a variety of non-Greeks living in the surrounding areas of the empire. =
These people were Syrians, Egyptians, Armenians, Jews, Persians, Slavs, Arab=
s, and Turks. Many of these groups resented the dominance of Greek culture. =
They wanted to keep their own languages and cultural traditions.
The Byzantines always considered themselves to be Romans living in the east=
ern Roman Empire. I In the early years of the empire, the Byzantine emperors=
were Roman and spoke Latin. Many aristocratic Roman families settled in Con=
stantinople after Constantine offered to build them homes and palaces like t=
he ones they had in Rome. However, regardless of their nationality, the majo=
rity of Constantinople's people spoke Greek. The emperors and aristocrats ev=
entually did the same. In time, those who were not Greek accepted Greek ways=
.
Religious Conflict
Religious disputes divided Christianity in the east. As the first Christian=
emperor, Constantine took the lead in promoting doctrinal unity within Chri=
stianity. He called and presided over the first important church council hel=
d at Nicaea in 325 A.D. Acting as both a political leader and a protector of=
the Church, Constantine placed the power of the government behind church de=
cisions. Later Byzantine emperors would follow Constantine's practice of int=
ervening in church affairs.
After Constantine"s rule ended, conflicts over church doctrines contin=
ued to divide the people of the Byzantine Empire. Theological arguments were=
not restricted to the clergy, or church officials, only. The laity, or chur=
ch members who are not clergy, talked about theology with great enthusiasm i=
n their homes and shops. Visitors to Constantinople saw shoppers in the mark=
et places having heated discussions about such topics as the exact relations=
hip of Jesus the Son, to God the Father. Such arguments often became politic=
al issues and led to fights and riots.
Justinian
The Byzantine Empire reached its greatest height under the emperor Justinia=
n, who ruled from 527 to 565 A.D. Justinian was born in Macedonia, a western=
province of the empire. He was the son of a prosperous peasant family. As a=
young man at the court of his uncle, Emperor Justin 1, Justinian was traine=
d in law, music, theology, and architecture. Later, he served as a commander=
in the Byzantine army. In 527 A.D. Justin made his nephew the co-ruler. A f=
ew months later, the old emperor died, and Justinian became the sole ruler. =
Theodora
Justinian's wife, Theodora, was beautiful, intelligent,=
and ambitious. She was an actress when Justinian met her. The people of the=
empire held actresses in low esteem. In spite of court objections, Justinia=
n married Theodora. She began to assist him in ruling the empire.
As empress, Theodora worked to improve the social standing of women. She ha=
d Justinian issue a decree allowing a wife the right to own land equal to he=
r dowry, or the wealth she brought with her when she married. Her efforts en=
abled widows to raise and support their children without government interfer=
ence. Theodora also promoted charitable work among the poor of Constantinopl=
e.
Theodora took an active part in political life. She often was involved in t=
he appointment or dismissal of government officials. In this way, she used h=
er power to reward her friends and punish her enemies. Theodora's political =
wisdom, at one point, helped save Justinian's throne. In 532 A.D. a revolt i=
n Constantinople threatened the government. Justinian's advisers told the em=
peror to leave the city. However, Theodora persuaded the emperor to stay and=
fight, rather than flee. Justinian and his troops crushed the uprising, kil=
ling 30,000 of the rebels. This victory further strengthened Justinian's pow=
er as emperor.
Military Campaigns
During Justinian's reign, the Byzantines faced a serious military threat fr=
om the East. The Sassanian empire of Persia, under Chosroes I, grew in stren=
gth and threatened to conquer the eastern provinces of the Byzantine Empire.=
The Byzantines rallied their forces and threw back the Persians. Justinian =
gained a brief period of security for the eastern borders by agreeing to pay=
tribute in return for peace.
Justinian next turned his attention to the west, where he wanted to restore=
the Roman Empire. Under the general, Belisarius, the Byzantine armies were =
strengthened and reorganized. Between 533 and 555 A.D., they fought a series=
of wars against the Vandals in North Africa, the Ostrogoths in Italy, and t=
he Visigoths in southern Spain.. The Byzantines succeeded in conquering thes=
e Germanic groups, and in extending Byzantine rule in the west. However, the=
price of regaining the old Roman Empire was very high. The wars exhausted m=
ost of the Byzantine resources. The treasury was bankrupt by the time Justin=
ian died. There were few funds left for a defense of the eastern borders whe=
re the Persian threat was renewed. Within a generation of Justinian's death,=
the Byzantine Empire lost its western territories to new invaders.
Law, Religion, and Art
Justinian also shaped the development of Byzantine law=
, religion, and art. Shortly after becoming emperor, he appointed a commissi=
on to codify, or classify, the empire's Roman laws. For centuries, these law=
s had accumulated without organization or classification.
The commission was made up of ten scholars headed by a legal expert named T=
ribonian. For more than six years, the commission collected and organized va=
st numbers of laws. It threw out the ones that were outdated, simplified man=
y, and put the remainder into -categories. The commission's work was recorde=
d in a collection of books known as the Corpus of Civil Law, or the Justinia=
n Code. This monumental work preserved the Roman legal heritage and passed i=
t on to future generations. Over time, it has had a great impact on the lega=
l systems of many countries.
Justinian further strengthened the ties between church and state. He settle=
d doctrinal disputes and continued a policy of trying to unify the empire un=
der one church organization. Jews and non-Greek Christians were sometimes pe=
rsecuted. To stamp out the last remnants of paganism, Justinian closed the s=
chool of philosophy in Athens.
Under Justinian, Byzantine art and architecture thrived and achieved their =
distinct character. The emperor ordered the construction of new roads, fortr=
esses, aqueducts, monasteries, and other buildings. His most famous project =
was the church of Hagia Sophia, "Holy Wisdom," in Constantinople. =
The largest and most beautiful church in the empire, Hagia Sophia still stan=
ds today as one of the world's great architectural landmarks.
Struggle and Survival
After Justinian's death, the Byzantine Empire entered a=
period of decline. Invaders attacked from all sides, defeated the empire's =
once-powerful armies, and captured parts of Byzantine territory. At the same=
time, religious conflicts and political rivalries for the Byzantine throne =
sapped the empire's strength from within.
Invasions
During the late 500's A.D., the Byzantine Empire faced many invaders. Lomba=
rds from Germany occupied Italy. Slavs, Avars, and Bulgars invaded the Balka=
n Peninsula. Persian attacks in the -east also threatened the empire.
Byzantine defeat seemed certain, until 610 A.D., when a new leader emerged.=
The general Heraclius, son of the Byzantine governor of North Africa, seize=
d the throne and was crowned emperor. Immediately he began political and mil=
itary reforms to save the empire. He reorganized the countryside into milita=
ry provinces under the control of generals. With this reform, military gover=
nments took the place of civilian governments in an attempt to improve the e=
mpire's security. Heraclius counted on small farmers to build a new army. In=
return for their services, he gave them land. Herachus's reforms worked so =
well that they lasted for over 500 years.
While Heraclius was strengthening the empire, Persian armies invaded Syria,=
Palestine, and Egypt. In 626 A.D. they reached the walls of Constantinople.=
Heraclius then counterattacked, defeated the Persians, and drove them out o=
f Byzantine territory. The Byzantines, however, did not enjoy peace for very=
long. A new enemy attacked them in 634 A.D. The Arabs, a group from the Mid=
dle East, invaded the outlying areas of the empire. These people were Muslim=
s, or followers of the religion known as Islam. The aims of their military c=
onquest were to spread the teachings of Islam and to acquire new wealth. Dur=
ing the 630's A.D., Arab armies gained victories over Syria and Palestine an=
d continued their expansion into North Africa in the west and Persia in the =
east.
The Arabs, however, were not strong enough to conquer Constantinople and it=
s surrounding area. They laid siege to the Byzantine capital from 674 to 678=
A.D. The Byzantine fleet finally defeated the Arabs and halted the Muslim a=
dvance into Europe. In fighting their opponents, the Byzantines used Greek f=
ire, a chemical mixture that ignited when it came into contact with fire. It=
burned the skin and was not easily put out. Greek fire was the first secret=
weapon in history. The Byzantines guarded the secret so carefully that its =
exact formula is still unknown.
Although the Byzantines stopped the Arabs at Constantinople, they were unab=
le to regain their lost territories in the Middle East and North Africa. The=
Arabs made these areas part of a new Islamic empire. They promised to estab=
lish law and order, as well as religious freedom, in the regions. The Byzant=
ines frequently persecuted Syrian and Egyptian Christians who belonged to no=
n-Greek Orthodox churches. As a result, many of these Christians welcomed th=
e Arabs as their liberators.
After the Arab conquests, the Byzantine Empire was reduced to the territori=
es that were primarily Greek. Byzantine culture lost much of its internation=
al character and became even more Greek. Greek also took the place of Latin =
as the official language of the government.
Religious Controversy
During the 700's and 800's A.D., a major religious crisis divided the empir=
e and drew it into civil war. This crisis was about the use of icons, or sac=
red pictures or images, in church worship. Although Christians had disagreed=
about this practice since the 200's A.D., they had never allowed it to seri=
ously divide them.
But by the 700's A.D., the use of icons had become a political issue. In 72=
6 A.D., Emperor Leo III issued a decree that all images and paintings should=
be removed from churches. He believed that the use of icons encouraged supe=
rstition and the worship of idols.
Leo's action sparked what is known as the iconoclastic controversy, a dispu=
te that divided, the empire into two opposing groups. Leo's supporters were =
known as iconoclasts, or image breakers. They were military leaders, governm=
ent officials, and many of the people living in Asia Minor. Many iconoclasts=
used force in carrying out the emperor's decree. However, important church =
leaders and most of the people in other regions were against the removal of =
icons. Rioting in favor of having icons broke out in Constantinople and othe=
r areas. The emperor saw these disturbances as a challenge to his authority.=
He acted to put down the demonstrations and to keep church leaders who favo=
red icons from gaining too much political power or influence.
The leading champion of icons was the Byzantine theologian, John of Damascu=
s. Although a resident of the Islamic Empire, he wrote many religious articl=
es defending the use of icons. The supporters of icons also received strong =
backing from the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church. The Pope's involvement =
in the controversy strained relations between the eastern and western church=
es.
A number of emperors after Leo supported iconoclasm, but public opinion bac=
ked those who favored icons and helped them to win the struggle. In 787 A.D.=
, a church council at Nicaea approved the use of icons and declared iconocla=
sm a heresy. Shortly thereafter, Empress Irene 2 permitted the use of icons =
as long as they did not receive the worship due to God. In 843 A.D., the Eas=
tern Orthodox Church reached a final settlement. It permitted the use of pic=
tures in worship, but not statues.
Rise and Decline
During the 800's A.D., the Byzantine Empire entered a period of prosperity =
and expansion under a new dynasty known as the Macedonians. The most success=
ful emperor during this era was Basil II, who ruled from 976 to 1025 A.D. Un=
der his leadership, the empire regained some of its lost territory in the Mi=
ddle East, and conquered the Balkan kingdom of Bulgaria. Basil also introduc=
ed reforms to slow the rising power of the landed aristocracy, and to improv=
e conditions for poor farmers.
During the late 1000's A.D., the Byzantine Empire entered another period of=
decline. In 1071 A.D. the Normans, a warrior people from northern Europe, s=
eized Byzantine lands in southern Italy. To fight the Normans, the Byzantine=
s called on Venice, an Italian trading city on the Adriatic Sea.' In spite o=
f Venice's assistance, the Byzantines were unable to remove the Normans.
In the same year, the Seljuk Turks, a Muslim people from central Asia, defe=
ated the Byzantines in the Battle of Manzikert. They gained control of Asia =
Minor, Syria, and Palestine, and threatened to take Constantinople.
While facing these invasions, Byzantines set up a new dynasty under the Com=
neni family. The most famous Comneni ruler was Alexius I, who ruled from 108=
1 to 1118 A.D. Shortly after becoming emperor, Alexius asked Pope Urban II a=
nd the Christian kingdoms of western Europe to help the Byzantine Empire def=
end Christianity against the Seljuks. After some delay, the Pope sent the fi=
rst of a series of military expeditions known as the crusades against the Mu=
slim Seljuks. However, the primary goal of the crusaders was to regain the H=
oly Land in Palestine for Western Christianity, not to protect the Byzantine=
s. When the First Crusade traveled east in 1096 A.D., Alexius was disappoint=
ed and angry that it was not placed under his command. With their own leader=
s, the crusaders marched into Syria and Palestine, conquered the Seljuks, an=
d set up independent states. However, the success of the First Crusade allow=
ed Alexius to recover territory in Asia Minor.
East-West Rivalry
The crusades increased tension between Byzantine Christians and western Chr=
istians. However, friction between east and west was not a new development. =
Ever since the time of Constantine, cultural and religious differences had s=
lowly been drawing the two areas apart.
Early Disputes
Since the 300'S A.D., the eastern and western churches had disagreed on a n=
umber of issues. As centuries passed, these disagreements deepened. The most=
serious issue concerned the source of religious authority. The Pope in Rome=
and the Patriarch of Constantinople did not agree on their roles in the Chr=
istian Church. The Pope argued that he was the supreme leader of the Church.=
The Patriarch refused to recognize this claim. In addition, the two, church=
leaders disagreed over points of doctrine. They challenged each other for c=
ontrol of the new churches in the Balkan Peninsula.'
At the same time, relations were strained between the Byzantine emperor and=
the Pope. In the 800's A.D., the Byzantine emperors failed to aid the Pope =
during the Lombard invasions of Italy. As a result, the Pope broke his ties =
with the Byzantine emperor and turned to the Franks, a Germanic Catholic gro=
up in western Europe, for military protection. In time, the Pope gave the ti=
tle of emperor to the Frankish king. This action made the Byzantine emperor =
even more bitter toward the Pope and western Europe. Finally, in 1054 A.D., =
doctrinal and political differences led to a schism, or separation, of the C=
hurch into the Roman Catholic Church in the west and the Eastern Orthodox Ch=
urch in the east.
Economic Rivalry
The crusades led to a rivalry between the Byzantines and western Europeans =
for control of trade in the eastern Mediterranean. The outcome of this rival=
ry permanently weakened the Byzantine Empire and embittered relations betwee=
n east and west for years to come.
During the 1100's A.D., the economic fortunes of Venice rose. Venetian merc=
hants were eager to capture Constantinople's prosperous trade in the Middle =
East. In 1204 A.D., Pope Innocent III called the Fourth Crusade against the =
Muslims. The Venetians agreed to transport the crusaders, mostly French nobl=
es, to the Holy Land. But first, the Venetians required the crusaders to hel=
p in an attack on the Byzantine Empire. After a fierce battle, a combined fo=
rce of crusaders and Venetians captured Constantinople in April 1204 A.D. Fo=
r three days, the attackers burned and looted the city; many residents were =
killed. They stole valuable objects from palaces, churches, libraries, homes=
, and shops. Many priceless manuscripts and works of art were either taken t=
o Venice, lost, or destroyed. The actions of the crusaders and Venetians wer=
e so brutal that the Pope publicly condemned them. He wrote:
These de=
fenders of Christ, who should have turned their swords &nb=
sp; o=
nly against the infidels [Muslims], have bathed in Christian blood. &n=
bsp; =
They have respected neither religion, nor age, nor sex. . . . It=
was =
; not enough for them to squander [waste] the treasur=
es of the =
[Byzantine] Empire and=
to rob private individuals, whether great &nb=
sp; or small. . .=
. They have dared to lay their hands on the wealth of &nb=
sp; t=
he churches. They have been seen tearing from the altars the &nb=
sp; &=
nbsp;silver adornments, breaking them in fragments, over which they &n=
bsp; =
quarrelled, violating the sanctuaries, carrying away the icons, =
&nbs=
p; crosses, and relics.*
Latin Empire
The western Christians deposed, or removed, the Byzantine emperor and estab=
lished a Latin empire. From the beginning, the Latin Empire had little chanc=
e for survival. The Fourth Crusade had stripped Constantinople of its trade =
and wealth. The Greek population, aided by the neighboring Bulgarians, activ=
ely resisted western rule. During the time the western Christians held Const=
antinople and the surrounding provinces, Greek nobles, church officials, and=
soldiers fled to areas that were still free from western control. In these =
places, they set up rival kingdoms and continued Byzantine culture.
The most important of the Greek kingdoms was located in the Asia Minor city=
of Nicaea. There the Greeks resumed the struggle against the western Christ=
ians. In 1261 A.D., Michael Palaeologus, a Greek noble, formed an army and c=
aptured Constantinople. The Byzantine Empire and its Eastern Orthodox Church=
were reestablished. Palaeologus became Emperor Michael VIII and founded the=
Palaeologi dynasty, which ruled the. empire for nearly 200 years.
End of the Byzantines
The newly restored Byzantine Empire was weak and needed time for its econom=
y to recover. The empire was also invaded, and lost more of its territory. T=
he Serbs and Bulgars moved into Byzantine territory in the Balkans, while Mu=
slim invaders from central Asia, known as Ottoman Turks, began to take over =
Byzantine lands in the east. By the late 1300's A.D., the empire consisted o=
nly of Constantinople and part of mainland Greece. The population of the cit=
y dropped to less than 100,000 persons. As its resources became scarce, the =
Byzantine economy began to decline. Gradually, the empire's trade came under=
the control of Venice and other Italian city-states.
In 1453 A.D., the Ottoman sultan, or ruler, Mehmet II, brought 150,000 sold=
iers to Constantinople. The Ottomans laid siege to the city, using cannon ag=
ainst its walls. The Ottoman fleet, however, could not enter Constantinople'=
s major harbor, the Golden Horn, because of heavy iron chains that guarded i=
ts entrance. The sailors finally pulled small boats overland to enter the ha=
rbor. The Ottomans soon had the upper hand, but the Byzantine emperor, Const=
antine XI, refused to surrender. The Byzantines fought until the emperor him=
self was slain.
On May 29, 1453 A.D., Mehmet II victoriously entered the city. He made it t=
he capital of the new Ottoman Empire and converted Hagia Sophia into a mosqu=
e, or Muslim house of worship. At the same time, Mehmet promised to protect =
the Greek Christians and to allow them freedom to conduct their own communit=
y affairs. He installed a new Greek patriarch to supervise the political and=
religious life of the Greek Christians . Thus, the 1,000-year-old Byzantine=
Empire passed into history.
From 500 to 800 A.D., the Byzantine Empire remained a center of civilizatio=
n at a time when most of western Europe was in a period of decline. It prese=
rved Greek philosophy and literature, Roman political and legal ideas, and C=
hristian theology. Later the Byzantine Empire shielded much of Christian Eur=
ope from the attacks of Muslim invaders, such as the Arabs and Turks.
At the same time, the empire passed Greek philosophy and Byzantine politica=
l institutions to these Muslim peoples. Above all, the Byzantines gave a uni=
que art form and Eastern Orthodoxy to Eastern Europe. Byzantine art also sha=
ped cultures in western Europe and the Middle East.
Byzantine Life
Byzantine society was divided into a hierarchy, or ranked order, of social =
groups. However, few barriers existed to prevent a person moving from one gr=
oup to another. As a result, Byzantine life was characterized by variety and=
change.
Family Life
The center of social life for most Byzantines was the family. Both church a=
nd government laws supported marriage as a sacred
institution. Although divorce was not prohibited, it was difficult to obtai=
n. Remarriage was not socially accepted. Repeated remarriage brought severe =
penalties from the Church.
Women were required, by Byzantine custom, to live partly in seclusion. They=
often had their own separate rooms at home and in churches. Most women perf=
ormed household tasks. When they were in public, they sometimes veiled their=
faces.
Although women did not have equality with men, the law guaranteed them cert=
ain rights. Through the efforts of Empress Theodora, the right to legal guar=
dianship of children in the event of widowhood or remarriage was granted to =
women. A woman also had the right to control all of her late husband's prope=
rty.
Some Byzantine women were able to overcome social restrictions. They became=
well educated and, in some cases, operated businesses and managed estates. =
A number of women governed the empire as regents, or temporary rulers. Some =
even ruled in their own right as empresses.
High Society
The emperor and the imperial family held the most respected and powerful po=
sitions in Byzantine society. They were surrounded by a court of advisers an=
d subordinates. The orders of the emperor were carried -out by civilian and =
military officials who served in various government posts. These officials c=
ompeted for power and influence. They often plotted to name or depose empero=
rs. Other influential groups were the leaders of the Eastern Orthodox Church=
, the land owning aristocracy, and wealthy merchants.
Wealthy Byzantines, in both city and country, lived in well-built stone or =
brick houses. Many homes had two stories and were built in the Roman style w=
ith courtyards. The rooms were elaborately decorated and filled with luxurio=
us
furnishings. In their homes, wealthy Byzantines held lavish banquets and pa=
rties.
Farmers.
Most Byzantines were farmers, shepherds, or laborers. T=
hey lived in villages of small one-room huts made of wood or brick. After th=
e reforms of Heraclius in the early 600's A.D., the majority of farmers owne=
d their own land. They raised crops and livestock for themselves as well as =
for nobles and church officials. The heavy taxes they paid supported the gov=
ernment and the emperor" s court. Young farmers served in the army. Vil=
lage women carried out household chores. They wove cloth on hand looms and w=
orked in the fields.
By the 800's A.D. a powerful group of landed aristocrats had emerged in the=
countryside. They bought up the properties of small farmers, who were then =
hired to work the land. The government passed laws to protect the lands of s=
mall farmers and to force the aristocrats to pay taxes. But these laws were =
unsuccessful. Wealthy landowners continued to exploit, or take advantage of,=
small farmers. As a result, poor people began to lose faith in the governme=
nt as a defender of their interests. In turn, the government no longer depen=
ded on the farmers to serve in the army. Instead, it used mercenaries, or hi=
red soldiers.
Commerce
Although the Byzantine economy was basically agricultur=
al, commerce thrived in cities like Constantinople and Thessalonika. There, =
merchants and artisans were organized into groups based on a particular trad=
e or enterprise. With the help of these groups, the Byzantine government str=
ictly controlled the economy. The government set prices, wages, and hours of=
business; regulated working conditions; and made rules for trade.
The major Byzantine business was textiles. During the 500's A.D., silkworms=
were brought to the Byzantine Empire from China. Thus began the production =
of silk. Silk was used in the making of luxurious clothing and furniture for=
the Church and the emperor's court. The government controlled the productio=
n of silk so that its secrets would not reach the West.
Recreation
The Byzantines enjoyed a variety of recreational activi=
ties. They held festivals to remember the holy days on the church calendar. =
Many religious occasions, such as baptism and marriage, were important famil=
y celebrations. The government organized public pageants and circuses for th=
e poor.
The people of Constantinople were divided between two competing groups, the=
Blues and the Greens. These groups held athletic contests and chariot races=
in the Hippodrome, a 40,000 seat arena. Heated rivalries between them took =
up a great deal of attention and energy. The Blues received the support of t=
he aristocrats, while the Greens were backed by the poor. Even the emperors =
had to choose sides. Occasionally, when politics became involved in these co=
ntests, riots broke out in the arena and spread to the city streets. After t=
he 600's A.D. the political role of the Blues and Greens declined.
Church and State
From its beginnings, the Byzantine Empire was a Christian empire. Eastern O=
rthodoxy was the official religion, and all Byzantines were required to be C=
hristians. Church and government affairs were closely linked. As a result, t=
heological disputes often became important. political issues.
Emperor and Clergy
Regarded as Christ's representatives on earth, Byzantin=
e emperors had a religious as well as a political role. Beginning in the 400=
'S A.D., they were crowned by the Patriarch of Constantinople and took an oa=
th to defend the Eastern Orthodox faith. Emperors appointed top church offic=
ials, including the Patriarch of Constantinople. As a result, emperors had e=
xtensive control over the Church's leadership. In religious services, the cl=
ergy prayed for God to bless the emperor and to give victory to the Byzantin=
e armies.
Monasteries and convents played an important role in Byzantine life. They w=
ere first formed in the 300'S A.D. by groups of Christians who wanted to lea=
d holy lives apart from the world. In 379 A.D., a leading bishop named Basil=
made a list of rules for organizing these communities. This list, known as =
the Basilian Rule, became the model for Eastern Orthodox religious life.
In addition to prayer and worship, monks and nuns helped the poor, provided=
hospitals, and ran schools for needy children. Monks also preserved classic=
al manuscripts and translated the Bible and other religious writings into se=
veral eastern European languages. They believed that more people would accep=
t Christianity if the Bible and church rituals were presented to them in the=
ir own language.
Missionaries
The Church began missionary work that spread both Orthodox Christianity and=
Byzantine culture to neighboring lands. The people who benefited the most f=
rom this effort were the Slavs, an Indo-European people who settled in areas=
of eastern Europe north of the Byzantine Empire.
The most famous Byzantine missionaries were the brothers Cyril and Methodiu=
s. They left Constantinople and traveled among the western group of Slavs du=
ring the 860's A.D. They developed an alphabet for the Slavic languages base=
d on a modified form of the Greek alphabet. It was called Cyrillic, in honor=
of Cyril, and is still used today by the Russians, Ukrainians, Bulganans , =
and -Serbs. Cyril and Methodius took with them translations of the Bible and=
the worship service of the Eastern Orthodox Church. As a result of Byzantin=
e efforts, Orthodox Christianity became the religion of most Slavs.
Religion and Foreign Affairs
Religion affected the foreign policy of the Byzantine E=
mpire. The long-standing dispute between the eastern and western churches pr=
evented a united resistance to the Muslim invaders. The Fourth Crusade, as w=
ell as claims by the Pope, embittered the Byzantine clergy and laity. They d=
eveloped a hostility toward the west that blocked future attempts to unite R=
oman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. After 1261 A.D. Most of the Palaeolo=
gi emperors favored unification of the churches in order to win western supp=
ort against the Muslims. However, they failed to reach this goal because of =
the strong opposition of Byzantine clergy and laity.
Learning, Literature, and Law
Upper- and middle-income groups in the Byzantine Empire were well educated.=
Primary instruction was available in cities and in some rural villages. Lar=
ger cities had institutions of higher education. The University of Constanti=
nople, established in 425 A.D., was supported by the government. It became a=
n important center of learning during the Middle Ages. In addition to govern=
ment-supported education, the Church provided religious schools in many area=
s to train priests and scholars. The leading center of theological studies w=
as the patriarchal academy in Constantinople.
In spite of the central role of the Church in Byzantine society, the conten=
t of a Byzantine education was not strictly religious. Secular subjects-medi=
cine, law, philosophy, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, grammar, and music-w=
ere taught in schools and academies. Wealthy people sometimes hired distingu=
ished tutors to instruct their children. Tutors played an especially importa=
nt role in the education of girls and women, who were usually not admitted t=
o schools and universities. However, some women were trained in professions =
such as medicine. For example, in the 1100's A.D., a woman doctor is mention=
ed in a description of a Byzantine hospital.
In literature, the role of the Church was dominant. The salvation of the so=
ul and obedience to God's will were major concerns for Byzantines. As a resu=
lt, Byzantine literature consisted mainly of hymns, poems, and other writing=
s in praise of Christ and his mother Mary. Stories about the lives of the sa=
ints were very popular. They read like novels and told of dramatic events, t=
ravel, adventure, and miracles. At the same time, they were intended to teac=
h moral lessons.
As a result of their Roman heritage, the Byzantines were interested in law.=
The emperor, as absolute ruler, made and issued laws. However, certain limi=
ts were placed on the use of this power. For example, the emperor was expect=
ed to respect both the teachings of the Church and the principles of the Jus=
tinian Code.
The growing influence of religion, as well as changes in Byzantine society,=
brought modifications in the Justinian Code. In the 700's A.D., a new colle=
ction of laws called the Ekologa reduced the number of crimes that called fo=
r the death
penalty. Another important collection, Basilica, was completed in the 900's=
A.D. It made the law easier to understand.
Judges appointed by the emperor administered justice in the civil courts. T=
hese courts applied the law to ordinary citizens. judges presented their dec=
isions in writing and were required to sign them.
Art and Architecture
Byzantine art was based on classical and early Christian artistic styles. T=
he art of ancient Greece and Rome stressed the reality of the material world=
. Some Byzantine art showed this influence with fully formed, lifelike figur=
es. However, the major influence was the early Christian tradition. It refle=
cted the viewpoint of the east, which stressed spiritual values. Most Byzant=
ine art, therefore, was devoted to religious subjects. Flat, two-dimensional=
figures were drawn according to set patterns that emphasized their holiness=
.
Byzantine artists served the needs of the emperor's court and the Orthodox =
Church. Many were monks, whose works were required to be anonymous, or witho=
ut the artist's name. This was done so that praise for a work of art would g=
o to God, not to the individual artist.
Icons were the most popular art form. They were made on wood for display in=
churches, shrines, and homes. In Orthodox churches, the
sanctuary, or altar area, was separated from the rest of the church by an i=
conostasis, a high thin wall covered with icons. Icons were also placed
in other areas of the churches. Iconography, or the making of icons, suffer=
ed a setback during the iconoclastic controversy. At that time, many
icons were destroyed. Few new ones were made because many Byzantine artists=
had fled from Constantinople to Italy. When icons were once again permitted=
, iconography again became a flourishing art form.
The Byzantines also developed an art form known as mosaic. Mosaics were mad=
e by fitting small flat pieces of stone or colored glass in mortar to form a=
picture or design. Mosaic artists used vivid colors to add brilliance to th=
e images that they created. They also used a special technique in arranging =
the colored pieces. A
visitor to Hagia Sophia described the church's mosaics in the following way=
:
As you move, the figures seem to move too. You could swear that their eyes =
are turning and shining and that their garments are rustling ... the Byzanti=
ne mosaicist [artist] has succeeded in creating the illusion that his jig-sa=
w puzzle has come to life.
Byzantine artists also excelled in making luxury crafts. They produced beau=
tiful products in embroidery, enamel, ivory, silver, and gold. They also ill=
uminated, or decorated, manuscript pages with elaborate designs and miniatur=
e pictures in brilliant colors.
The Byzantines were also noted for their architecture. Their most important=
accomplishment in this field was the construction of domed churches with ri=
chly decorated interiors. Hagia Sophia in Constantinople is considered the m=
ost magnificent of the Byzantine churches. Rectangular in shape, the church =
has a huge circular dome over its central part.
Erecting domes over rectangular or square buildings was a major architectur=
al advance. Before the Byzantines, domes could only be built on circular wal=
ls. The Byzantine innovation gave designers more flexibility in the use of s=
pace. The Byzantines later built cross-shaped, multidomed churches. A fine e=
xample of this style is St. Mark's Cathedral in Venice, Italy.
Like the empire itself, Byzantine art and architecture went through periods=
of advance and decline. But their influence lasted long after the fall of C=
onstantinople and spread beyond the borders of the empire. Byzantine styles =
in art and architecture later affected Russian, Balkan, and Turkish cultures=
. Byzantine art forms are still used today in Eastern Orthodox church buildi=
ngs throughout the world.
Early Russia
After-the fall of Constantinople in 1453 A.D., the leadership of the Easter=
n Orthodox world passed from the Byzantines to the Russians. The Russians we=
re the largest group among the Slavs who lived in eastern Europe. Because of=
their location, the Russians had been in close contact with the Byzantines =
since the 900's A.D.
This relationship made a lasting mark on the development of Russian history=
. The Russians borrowed much from the highly developed Byzantine civilizatio=
n. On the foundation of Byzantine religion, law, and culture, the Russians b=
uilt a new civilization. They also borrowed heavily from western European an=
d Asian cultures. As a result of these different influences, Russia never be=
came a completely eastern or western country.
Environment Geography has played an important role in Russian history. Sinc=
e their earliest days, the Russians have controlled a vast area of plains, f=
orests, lakes, and rivers where Europe meets Asia. Most of their territory i=
s a great plain. This plain, called the steppe, begins in Europe and extends=
eastward into Asia. The steppe has made it easy for invaders from both Asia=
and Europe to move into Russian territory. It was the first site of Russian=
civilization. North of the steppe is a thickly forested region. This area w=
as not heavily settled until after the 1200's A.D. However, its secure locat=
ion soon made it the country's political center.
Throughout Russian history, rivers have been very important. The major rive=
rs of Russia flow from north to south and empty into either the Black Sea or=
the Caspian Sea. Rivers have been used for trade and transportation and hav=
e helped unite the country. The most important centers of Russian history ha=
ve been located on or near major rivers.
In spite of its many waterways, early Russia was a landlocked country, hund=
reds of miles from the open sea. In the 1500's A.D. Russia began to expand i=
ts borders in order to find outlets to the sea.
Another important geographic feature of Russia is its northern location. Mu=
ch of the country is located farther north than most other centers of civili=
zation. Because of its interior location, the country is not affected by war=
m moist winds from the oceans. Instead, freezing arctic winds blow across th=
e land from early fall to late spring. As a result, most of Russia has a cli=
mate with great extremes of temperature in summer and winter, short spring a=
nd fall seasons, and small amounts of rainfall.
This location and climate have brought many hardships to the Russians. For =
example; crops are very difficult to grow in many areas due to poor weather =
conditions. Also, transportation is hindered because most of Russia's waterw=
ays are frozen nearly year-round.
Russian Origins
Historians know little about the origins of the Slavs, the larger group to =
which the Russians belong. Some believe the Slavs came from what is now east=
ern Poland. Others think they may have been farmers in the Black Sea region.=
It is known that by 500 A.D., the Slavs had separated into smaller groups a=
nd had settled in different areas of eastern Europe. One group, known as the=
West Slavs, lived in the marshlands, plains, and mountains of east-central =
Europe. They successfully fought the Germans to the west and the Scandinavia=
ns to the north for control of this territory. Today, the descendants of the=
West Slavs are the peoples of Poland and Czechoslovakia. Another group, kno=
wn as the South Slavs, settled in the Balkan Peninsula. Today, their descend=
ants are the peoples of Yugoslavia.
The largest group of Slavs, called East Slavs, lived in the land near the B=
lack Sea between the Dniester and the Dnieper Rivers. From 500 to 800 A.D., =
they moved eastward toward the Volga River. These people gradually intermarr=
ied with Asiatic and Nordic peoples who later invaded the area. From the Eas=
t Slavs came the peoples who are known today as Russians, Ukrainians, and Be=
lorussians.
Early Russians
The early Russians lived in villages made up of related families. They clea=
red the land for farming and shared their tools and produce. Forests provide=
d the Russians with timber, which they used to build their izbas, or log cab=
ins. Many izbas had wooden gables and window frames decorated with painted c=
arvings of flowers and animals. Skilled artisans also used wood to make musi=
cal instruments, boats, and images of favorite gods.
The Russians used the many rivers in their area for transportation and trad=
e. They set up trading towns along the riverbanks. By the 800's A.D., a trad=
e route ran from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Black Sea in the south. =
Kiev
The early Russians were not warlike. During the second=
half of the 800's A.D., they relied on the Varangians, a group of warriors =
and traders from Scandinavia, to protect their trade routes. The Varangians =
not only provided military support, they also laid the foundations of Russia=
n government.
The arrival of the Varangians is recorded in the Russian Chronicles, a coll=
ection of Russian history, tales, and legends written in the 1100's A.D. &nb=
sp;According to the Russian Chronicles, in 862 A.D. the people of Novgorod, =
a northern town on the Russian trade route, asked a Varangian leader named R=
urik to be their prince. Upon Rurik's death, another Varangian named Oleg su=
cceeded him. Oleg moved south and set up the first organized Russian state. =
He established his capital at Kiev, the southernmost town on the trade route=
. Kiev stood on a hill overlooking the Dnieper River and was located close t=
o where the forests met the steppe. Kiev was in a good location to protect i=
ts merchant ships.
Control of Kiev enabled Oleg to dominate the north-south water trade route.=
Towns along the route were brought together under his leadership. Kiev soon=
became the chief political and commercial center among the Russian territor=
ies. The rulers of Kiev, known as "'Grand Princes," conducted raid=
s against Constantinople. They were attracted by the wealth and civilization=
of the Byzantine capital. In 911 A.D. a treaty ended these raids and establ=
ished trade between the Byzantines and the Russians. During the summer month=
s, Russian merchants carried furs, honey, and other forest products by boat =
to Constantinople. There they traded their goods for cloth, wine, weapons, a=
nd jewelry.
Early Russian Government
By 900 A.D. the Russians had organized into a confedera=
tion of city-states and principalities, or territories ruled by princes. Eac=
h region enjoyed local self-government; however, they all paid special respe=
ct to the grand prince of Kiev. The grand prince collected tribute from the =
local princes to support his court and army. The major duties of these princ=
es were to administer justice and to defend the frontiers. The princes were =
assisted by councils of wealthy merchants and landed nobles, who were known =
as boyars. Veches, or assemblies, represented all free, adult male citizens.=
They handled daily affairs and had the power to accept or remove princes. <=
BR>
These three institutions-the princely office, the council, and the veche-va=
ried in power from region to region. In the northeastern territories, the pr=
inces wielded a great deal of political power. In the southeastern areas, th=
e boyars had the greatest political influence. In Novgorod and a few norther=
n trading towns and cities, the veches overshadowed both princes and boyars.=
In these areas, the veches came close to establishing a tradition of repres=
entative government in Russia. However, later princes limited the powers of =
the veches.
Economic Prosperity
During the 1000's A.D., Russian trade prospered and gre=
w as a result of contacts with the Byzantines and Muslims. Kiev's merchants =
exchanged money for goods and enjoyed a sophisticated urban culture. Archeol=
ogists and historians believe that Kiev was an important trading link betwee=
n Europe and Asia, and between Scandinavia and the Middle East. Recent excav=
ations in Sweden unearthed more than 200,000 Arabic and Byzantine coins. Suc=
h a discovery shows the extensive amount of trade that passed through Kiev d=
uring this period. By 1050 A.D. Russian civilization was more advanced than =
the civilizations of any other western or Mediterranean culture. Only the By=
zantine and Islamic civilizations surpassed it.
Christianity in Russia
Before the late 900's A.D., the Russians honored nature spirits and ancesto=
rs, and worshiped many Rods. The most popular gods were Perun, god of thunde=
r and lightning, and the Great Mother, goddess of the land and harvest. Imag=
es of the gods were built on the highest ground outside the villages.
Vladimir's Conversion
As a result of contact with the Byzantine Empire, many =
Russians were influenced by Eastern Orthodoxy. Olga, a princess of Kiev, bec=
ame the first member of the Russian nobility to accept the faith. After her =
death, she was made a saint of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Her grandson, Pr=
ince Vladimir I of Kiev, decided to abandon paganism and to adopt a new reli=
gion that he thought would help the Russians to become more civilized. An ol=
d Russian legend states that Vladimir sent observers abroad to examine Judai=
sm, Islam, Roman Catholicism, and Eastern Orthodoxy. They were unimpressed b=
y what they witnessed until they came to Constantinople. There they were awe=
d by the beauty of Eastern Orthodox worship in the Hagia Sophia. When they r=
eturned to Kiev, the observers persuaded Vladimir to convert to Eastern Orth=
odoxy. In 989 A.D. Vladimir ordered the mass baptism of his people in the Dn=
ieper River. He then made Eastern Orthodoxy the official religion in his ter=
ritories. He also established closer ties between Kiev and Constantinople by=
marrying the sister of the Byzantine emperor.
Orthodox Russia
Vladimir's acceptance of Eastern Orthodoxy gave the Rus=
sians a sense of belonging to the civilized world. The new religion brought =
Byzantine culture to Russia. Byzantine priests and bishops introduced the Ru=
ssians to colorful rituals and taught them the art of painting icons. The Ru=
ssians learned to write their language in the Cyrillic alphabet. Schools wer=
e established in the towns for the sons of boyars, priests, and merchants. B=
yzantine architects arrived in Kiev to build stone cathedrals and churches w=
ith onion-shaped domes. Monasteries also were founded in the towns and count=
ryside, and attracted many of the new converts. By 1000 A.D. the Eastern Ort=
hodox Church in Russia had developed an organization and had won the support=
of the people. It became known as the Russian Orthodox Church.
The acceptance of Eastern Orthodoxy, however, contributed to the isolation =
of Russia from the outside world. Following the schism between the eastern a=
nd western churches, Russia was separated from western Europe. Its people lo=
st contact with developments that took place in that area after 1200 A.D. At=
the same time, the Byzantine practice of translating the Bible and Orthodox=
church services into local languages had an important impact. Because Russi=
an scholars had translations of some classical and Christian writings in the=
ir own language, they did not learn Greek or Latin. As a result, they did no=
t deepen their knowledge of the heritage of western European civilization. I=
nstead, they turned for inspiration to the traditions of their own local cul=
ture.
Kievan Rulers
Vladimir I, who ruled from 980 to 1015 A.D., was one of the most important =
grand princes of Kiev. Known for his skills as a warrior, he successfully de=
fended Russia's eastern frontiers against nomadic invaders. He also expanded=
Russia's western borders by capturing lands in Poland and near the Baltic S=
ea.
After Vladimir's death, his sons fought each other for the Kievan throne. I=
n 1019 A.D. Yaroslav triumphed over his brothers and assumed full control of=
the state. During his reign, Kiev reached the height of its cultural and ec=
onomic development. Skilled artisans and builders transformed the appearance=
of the city with fortifications, gates, churches, and monasteries.
Yaroslav encouraged the spread of learning and earned the title "'the =
Wise." He collected books and brought scholars from Constantinople to K=
iev. Yaroslav was also a skilled diplomat. He negotiated alliances with west=
ern European kingdoms. He arranged marriages for his relatives with members =
of royal families in Poland, Norway, Hungary, and France.
Yaroslav's major achievement was the organization of Russian laws. He asked=
the clergy to create a code of law based on local Slavic customs and Byzant=
ine law. Written primarily for the princes and merchants, the code made crim=
es of property more serious than crimes against persons. By the standards of=
the day, it was exceptionally mild regarding punishments. For example, it d=
id not provide for a death penalty.
Fall of Kiev
Struggles among princes for control of the throne broke out after Yaroslav'=
s death in 1054 A.D. During the next century, Kiev began a slow decline, wit=
h only brief periods of recovery. Developments outside of Russia played an i=
mportant part in Kiev's misfortunes. The Fourth Crusade in 1204 A.D. and the=
creation of a Latin state in Constantinople disrupted Russian trade with th=
e Byzantines. As a result, Kiev's economy was seriously weakened. The final =
blow to Kiev took place in 1240 A.D., when Mongol invaders from central Asia=
captured the city and completely destroyed it.
Mongols
The Mongols, or the Tatars as the Russians called them,=
defeated the armies of the Russian principalities and conquered most of the=
country. During the invasion, they sacked towns and villages and killed man=
y people. After establishing control, the Mongols allowed the Russians to pr=
actice Christianity and to govern themselves. However, the Russian princes h=
ad to pay tribute to the khan, or Mongol leader. Russians also had to serve =
in the khan's armies. The Mongol invasion helped the Russians gain a sense o=
f being one people. However, they also became further isolated from the outs=
ide world.
During this period the Russian Orthodox Church remained strong and preserve=
d Russian culture. As city life in the south of the country declined, Russia=
n monks began to move into the remote northern forests. There they founded m=
onasteries and churches. The monks were followed by farmers and artisans, wh=
o were also trying to escape Mongol rule. These people became settlers in th=
e new towns and villages that soon developed around the monasteries.
Alexander Nevsky
After the fall of Kiev, the political center of Russia shifted north al=
ong with the movement of population. In the late 1200's A. D. the principali=
ty of Vladimir-Suzdal and the city of Novgorod became the strongest of the R=
ussian territories. They had been less affected by the Mongols than the othe=
r Russian principalities and cities. However, they faced powerful enemies al=
ong the Baltic coast-the Catholic Swedes and the Teutonic Knights, a crusadi=
ng order that had been formed in Palestine and later transferred to northeas=
tern Europe. Both groups wanted to 'force the Russians to accept Roman Catho=
licism and western European culture.
In 1240 A.D., Alexander, the young prince of Novgorod, defeated the invadin=
g Swedes beside the Neva River and won the title Nevsky, or "of the Nev=
a. " Two years later, he won a great victory over the Teutonic Knights =
on an icy lake near the Baltic. Alexander Nevsky became known as a war hero.=
In 1252 A.D. he was made the prince of Vladimir-Suzdal. As prince, he paid =
visits to the court of the khan, where he negotiated the easing of Mongol co=
ntrols over his
people. Because of his services to the nation, after his death in 1263 A.D.=
, Alexander Nevsky was made a saint of the Russian Orthodox Church.
In the early 1300's A.D., Nevsky's youngest son Daniel became the ruler of =
Moscow, a small, prosperous town that was located on important land and wate=
r routes. Daniel's successors expanded the territory of Moscow. By the late =
1400"s A.D., Moscow had become the most powerful city in Russia. It was=
soon to become the capital of the world's largest Eastern Orthodox Christia=
n state.
1. Identify: West Slavs, South Slavs, East Slavs, Varangi=
ans, Russian Chronicles, Kiev, Olga, Vladimir, Yaroslav, Mongols, Alexander =
Nevsky, Moscow.
1. Identify: Blues and Greens, Basil, Cyrillic.
1. Identify: Constantinople, Eastern Orthodoxy, Nicaea, J=
ustinian, Theodora, Sassanian, Belisarius, Tribonian, Corpus of Civil Law, H=
agia Sophia.
1. Identify: Franks, Venice, Michael VIII, Palaeo-
logi, Ottoman Turks, Mehmet II.
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