Chapter Three
Greece Civilization
While important civilizations emerged in the East, the Greeks developed the
first great civilization in the West. They influenced western civilization
more than any other people of the ancient world. Greek philosophers gave th=
e
West such basic ideas as democracy and the worth of the individual. Greek
thinkers also developed the scientific method, the basic rules of geometry,
and the principles of logic, or the science of reasoning. The Greek languag=
e
shaped every major language in the western world. Other important
contributions of ancient Greece were drama, athletic competition, and
various styles of architecture. In fact, much of what has been accomplished
in the West since ancient times is based on Greek thought and culture.
Like other peoples, the Greeks were influenced by the geography of their
homeland. Ancient Greece included the southern part of Europe's Balkan
Peninsula and an archipelago in the Aegean Sea. The Greek mainland is
divided by mountain ranges and water inlets. Short, swift rivers flow from
the interior to the sea. This type of terrain was not favorable for the
development of a land-based civilization. However, the long, indented
coastline of Greece provided many fine harbors. Most Greeks therefore
settled on the coastal plains and the islands. Isolated from each other,
they formed many small self-governing communities dependent on sea trade.
Early Aegean Civilizations
Greek civilization grew out of earlier civilizations that flourished in the
Aegean area between 3100 and 1100 B.C. These Aegean societies were
eventually destroyed by natural disasters and foreign invasions.
For nearly 3,000 years, the Aegean past was shrouded in mystery and legend.
Then during the 1870's, Heinrich Schliemann, a German archeologist,
uncovered many of the "'lost" cities of the Aegean world. Schliemann's
discoveries soon led to more excavations by other archeologists. In 1900,
Sir Arthur Evans, a British archeologist, unearthed the remains of a great
civilization on the island of Crete.' Further discoveries in this century
have helped historians piece together the puzzle of early Aegean
civilizations.=20
Minoans
The first Aegean civilization arose on Crete around 3100 B.C. Sir Arthur
Evans named this Cretan civilization "Minoan" after King Minos, its
legendary founder. He also divided Minoan history into three periods: Early
Minoan (3100-2100 B.C.), Middle Minoan (2100-1600 B.C.), and Late Minoan
(1600-1100 B.C.). Evans was able to determine these dates as a result of hi=
s
discovery of both Egyptian and Minoan pottery in the same archeological
layers. Knowing the age of the Egyptian pottery, he was able to figure the
age of the Minoan, pottery. Evans then worked out the Minoan periods of
history so that they roughly matched the Egyptian periods of the Old
Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, and New Kingdom. Early Crete During the Early
Minoan period, the people of Crete settled in small communities ruled by
chiefs. They lived in brick houses, made bronze goods, and became expert
sailors. By about 2000 B.C. the Minoans had developed a thriving trade
throughout the eastern Mediterranean. As a result, Minoan culture was
influenced by the cultures of Egypt and the Fertile Crescent. For example,
Linear A the earliest style of Minoan writing, is related to the Semitic
languages. Scholars, however, have yet to decipher it completely.
Knossos During the Middle Minoan period, the city of Knossos rose to power
and controlled all of Crete. Around 1800 B.C. the ruler of Knossos complete=
d
the building of a large palace, the ruins of which still stand today. The
palace covered about 5 acres (2 hectares). It consisted of several stone
houses that surrounded a central courtyard. Passageways and rooms twisted
and turned in all directions to form a labyrinth, or maze. The palace had a
drainage system, hot and cold running water, and portable fireboxes to heat
the rooms. In its warehouses were stored large jars containing grain, wine,
and olive oil. About 1400 B.C. the palace was either destroyed by invaders
or a natural disaster.
Crete's Golden Age During the Late Minoan period, Crete reached the height
of its power. Minoans grew wealthy from their control of trade between the
Middle East and the Aegean area. Their rulers rebuilt the palace at Knossos
and constructed three new palaces elsewhere on the island. These residences=
,
as well as the cities surrounding them, had no fortifications or walls to
protect them. To guard against outside attack, the Minoans relied on their
strong navy.=20
More than 90 cities and towns developed throughout Crete. Knossos was the
largest city, with a population of about 100,000. Cobblestone roads
connected the important cities on the island. The most famous road ran from
Knossos to Phaestus. It was 40 miles (64 kilometers) long and had an inn
where travelers could rest their animals and eat in a beautifully decorated
dining hall.=20
Society and Culture The Minoans were divided into four main social groups:
nobles, merchants and artisans, farmers, and slaves. Minoan women enjoyed a
higher status than women in other civilizations. In addition to household
duties, they were permitted to attend sporting events. Minoan religion had!=
:
more goddesses than gods. The chief deity was the Great Goddess, or Mother
Earth, whom the Minoans believed caused the growth of all living things.
The Minoans enjoyed life and delighted in beautiful objects. Minoan artisan=
s
designed delicate jewelry and made decorative cups and vases with paintings
of flowers and animals. They also produced a type of pottery that was as
thin as an eggshell. The walls of Minoan homes were painted with brightly
colored murals showing scenes from daily life.
The Minoans loved sports. They probably built the worlds first arena, where
boxing matches were held. Another favorite sport was bull leaping, a
combination of acrobatic skill and bullfighting. Men and women "fought" the
bull together. A man would grab the bull's horns and do a somersault,
landing on the bull's back. Then he would do a back flip. Standing behind
the bull, a woman would catch her partner as he landed. Many experts believ=
e
bull leaping was a religious ritual as well as a sport.
Minoan civilization lasted until about 1400 B.C. At that time, unknown
invaders attacked Knossos and left it in ruins. Other Minoan cities soon
declined, and eventually disappeared. Around 1100 B.C. new invaders called
the Mycenaeans arrived in Crete from the Greek mainland.
The Mycenaeans linked Crete to the emerging civilization of Greece. Minoan
words entered the Greek language, and Minoan styles influenced Greek art.
The Greeks also borrowed Minoan legends, and added to them. The most famous
is the story of the warrior Theseus and his killing of the Minotaur, a
mythological Cretan monster that was half-man and half-animal. The Greeks
also believed that Zeus, their chief god, was born in the mountains of
Crete.=20
Mycenaeans
Before their invasion of Crete, the Mycenaeans had built a major
civilization in southern Greece. They originally entered Greece from the
north around 2000 B.C. At that time, the Mycenaeans were known as Achaeans.
By 1600 B.C. they had intermarried with the local population and were
settled in farming towns and villages.
Mycenae
The principal center of Mycenean civilization was Mycenae, a city on the
mainland about ten miles (16 kilometers) inland from the Aegean Sea. In
1876, Heinrich Schliemann discovered six tombs in Mycenae that revealed the
wealth of the Mycenaeans. The most impressive finds were several golden
masks, which had been placed over the faces of deceased warrior-kings.
Cities=20
Unlike the Minoan cities, Mycenaean cities were highly fortified. For
example, the walls of Mycenae were 23 feet (6.9 meters) thick. Outside the
walls were the estates of warriornobles. Slaves and tenants lived in
villages on the estates. They farmed the nobles' land and brought produce t=
o
city markets. Mycenaean cities were connected by good roads and bridges. In
times of danger, the cities provided protection to people from the rural
areas.=20
The dominant buildings in many Mycenaean cities were palaces. They served a=
s
centers of production as well as government administration. Within the
palaces, artisans tanned leather, sewed clothes, fashioned jars for storing
wine and olive oil, and made bronze weapons. Government officials kept
detailed accounts of production and trade. To help in collecting taxes, the=
y
also kept records of the wealth of every person in the city. Taxes were
collected in kind, or in the form of grain and other produce - These items
were stored in the palace and used to pay government employees.
Heroic Age=20
By the 1400'S B.C., the Mycenaeans had developed into powerful seafarers an=
d
had begun raiding nearby lands. Once they conquered Crete, the Mycenaeans
dominated the Aegean area. They remained powerful until the 900'S B.C. This
period of Mycenaean strength is called the Heroic Age of Greece.
The Mycenaeans left no written history. Instead ' they passed on stories
about their kings and heroes by word of mouth. Some of these stories were
based on actual people and events. With constant retelling, they became
legends and were used to explain the relationships between humans and gods.
In this form, the Mycenaean stories became the basis of Greek mythology.
Trojan War=20
The most famous episode of the Heroic Age was the Trojan War. This conflict
was fought in the mid-1200'S B.C. between the Mycenaeans and the people of
Troy, a major trading city of Asia Minor. According to later Greek accounts=
,
Paris, a prince of Troy, fell in love with Helen, the wife of a Mycenaean
king. Paris kidnapped Helen and took her to Troy. To avenge this deed, the
Mycenaeans laid siege for several years to Troy, but were unable to capture
the city. Finally, they tricked the Trojans by building a huge wooden horse=
.
The best Mycenaean soldiers hid inside the horse, while the rest boarded
their ships and pretended to sail away. Thinking that the Mycenaeans had
gone, the Trojans brought the horse into the city. The Mycenaeans later
crept out and attacked and burned Troy.
Although the details of the Trojan War are legendary, Heinrich Schliemann i=
n
1870 proved that the city of Troy had actually existed. Since then,
archeologists have uncovered the remains of nine cities on the site. Each
successive city was built on the ruins of the one before it. Experts now
believe that the seventh city was the legendary Troy of the 1200'S B.C.
Dark Age=20
About ll00 B.C. invaders known as Dorians entered Greece ce from the north.
Because of their superior iron weapons, they were able to conquer the
Mycenaens. The Mycenaea Ionians, a people related to the Mycenaeans, fled
from southern Greeceto a region of Asia Minor bordering the Aegean Sea. The=
y
set up a group of self-governing communities and called their new homeland,
Ionia.
Due to these disruptive events, the Aegean world entered a "'dark age" that
lasted for more than 300 years. Contacts with the highly developed
civilizations of the Middle East were cut off. Overseas trade stopped, and
the urban population declined. The Aegean people soon lost their skills in
record-keeping, painting, and crafts.
In spite of these setbacks, a new civilization slowly emerged in Ionia and
spread to the Greek mainland. Small, separate communities appeared along th=
e
coast of Greece and in the interior. The people of Ionia and Greece called
themselves Hellenes, or "Greeks." This early Greek population was made up o=
f
two classes: landowning aristocrats or nobles, and poor peasants. The
peasants served the nobles by tilling the land and fighting in local wars.
By 800 B.C. the Greeks began to produce their first literary works.
Storytellers known as bardsglorified the Mycenaean period and made it into
an age of heroes. The greatest of these performers was the blind poet Homer=
.
He composed two great epic poems about the Trojan War and its results: the
Iliad and the Odyssey. The ancient Greeks memorized these epics and repeate=
d
them orally until they were written down during the 500'S B.C. Today, the
Iliad and the Odyssey are considered the first masterpieces of Greek
literature.=20
Another early literary figure was Hesiod, a small landowner from southern
Greece. Instead of praising war heroes of the past, he reflected on the
injustices of the "dark age" in which he was living. In his poem "'Works an=
d
Days," he described the hard life of the landless peasants, who worked the
fields of their ruthless landlords. He also predicted the decline of the
world through five stages. The first was the Age of Gold; the last, which
spanned Hesiod's lifetime, was the Age of Iron. Hesiod characterized the Ag=
e
of Iron as a time when "'might made right" and when people turned against
their neighbors. In spite of his pessimism, Hesiod praised the values of
rural life, such as hard work, thrift, and simplicity. These values would
later contribute to the rise of a new Greek civilization.
2 Rise of Hellenic Civilization
By 800 B.C. the Greeks had emerged from the "dark age" with a great deal of
cultural unity. They spoke a common language, shared the same customs, and
worshiped the same deities. However, they did not unite under a single
government. Instead, farming communities in Ionia and Greece joined togethe=
r
and formed separate city-states. This period of Greek history is known as
the Hellenic era.=20
Polis
Each city-state, known as a polis, was independent and developed its own
pattern of life. The typical Greek polis grew around a fortified hill calle=
d
an acropolis. At the top of the acropolis was the royal palace and the
temple of the local god or goddess. At its foot was the agora, or public
square. The agora became the political and business center of the polis.
Citizens gathered there to discuss politics and public affairs. The agora
also served as a marketplace where artisans and merchants conducted
business. Near the agora were many homes, shops, and gardens. The villages,
fields, and orchards outside this built-up area were also partof the
city-state.=20
The polis was the geographical and political center of Greek life. It gave
its citizens a sense of belonging and received from them the highest
loyalty. Citizens had certain rights that non-citizens living in the polis
did not have. They could vote, own property, hold public office, and speak
for themselves in court. In return, they were expected to participate in
government and to defend the polis in time of war.
Economic Expansion=20
From 800 to 700 B.C., the Greek city-states began to play an important role
in the Mediterranean world. Economic prosperity returned after the "dark
age," and trade increased. The population rose, and the city-states became
overcrowded. As a result, many Greeks migrated to coastal areas around the
Mediterranean and Black Seas. There, they established colonies. By 500 B.C.
Greek colonies flourished from Spain in the west to the Black Sea in the
east.=20
The colonists maintained a strong attachment to their homeland. Each colony
tended to come from the same city-stafe. Colonists called the city-state of
their origin metropolis, or "mother city." Greek colonies were fully
independent, but each kept close religious and cultural ties with its
metropolis. Colonies provided grain, wool, dried and salted fish, and slave=
s
to the homeland. In return, they received olive oil, wine, pottery, and
clothing. As a result of this trade, the Greek world prospered.
Trade greatly influenced the development of Greek civilization. Greek
merchants and traders traveled throughout the Mediterranean and came into
contact with other civilizations. As a result, they borrowed new ideas and
techniques.=20
From the Phoenicians, the Greeks obtained an alphabet and adapted it to
their language. They also used Phoenician skills to build longer and faster
ships. Other foreign contributions to Greece were the Sumerian system of
weights and measures, and the Lydian practice of coining money.
Political Change Increased trade and commerce changed Greek political life.
During the "dark age," each Greek community had been governed by a king wit=
h
the assistance of a council of elders. Around the 700'S B.C. the city-state=
s
emerged, and the kings gradually lost power to the landholding aristocrats.
Many aristocrats profited from the increase in trade. With their new
economic power, they took control of city-state governments.
During the mid-600'S B.C., the city-states were divided by political
conflicts. The aristocrats fought among themselves, and their hold on the
city-states weakened. At the same time., new fighting techniques made their
military role obsolete, or outdated. Greek armies traditionally had
consisted of a small number of aristocratic warriors equipped with horses
and chariots. Later, economic prosperity enabled a larger
number of Greeks to buy arms. As a result, the aristocratic army was
replaced by a citizen army composed mainly of prosperous farmers. This new
army was based on the phalanx, an infantry unit armed with spears and sword=
s
that fought in close formation, 16 rows deep.
The aristocrats were soon challenged by a rising middle class of wealthy
merchants and artisans. The merchants and artisans wanted to protect and
expand trade routes, while many of the aristocrats sought to protect and
expand their lands. To advance their interests, the merchants and artisans
opposed the power of the aristocrats and demanded a greater role in
government.=20
As the rich grew richer, the poor fell further into debt. Many peasants los=
t
their land to the aristocrats and had to join part-time workers in the
cities. Other poor people were sold into slavery. At the same time, some
landowners began to shift large areas of land from grain production to more
profitable orchards and vineyards. As a result, many agricultural workers
lost full-time employment and became seasonal laborers. In protest, the
lower class backed the wealthy merchants and artisans against the
aristocrats.=20
Tyrants =20
To advance their cause, the discontented groups backed the rise of leaders
known
as tyrants. Tyrants were champions of the common people and promised better
government. Each tyrant seized power from the aristocrats and set up
one-person rule. Once in power, tyrants weakened the landed aristocracy and
supported the merchants and artisans. Most were good administrators and
reformers. They promoted trade, carried out many public works projects, and
treated the people justly. However, a few were harsh and gave the word
"tyrant" its present meaning-a cruel and unjust ruler.
Tyrants ruled in the various Greek city-states until the end of the 50 ' O'=
S
B.C. They especially helped shape the early development of the greatest
Greek city-states, Athens and Sparta.
Athens
Before the 600'S B.C. Athens was a small town in Attica, a peninsula of
central Greece. The region around Athens had poor, rocky soil, which made
farming difficult. As a result, many Athenians worked in the silver mines o=
r
made ceramics. They also became skilled traders and seafarers. Athens,
however, did not establish overseas colonies as had other city-states.
Instead, it extended its territory on the Greek mainland. By the 600'S B.C.
it had brought all of the villages of Attica under its leadership.
Government Athens was at first ruled by kings. Athenian monarchs were
primarily religious and ceremonial leaders. They were elected by an assembl=
y
of citizens and advised by a council of nobles. Other executives included a
polemarch, who led the armed forces, and an archon, who supervised
government administration. All important' government officials served
one-year terms. When their terms ended, they joined a council of past
officeholders.=20
In the 600'S B. C. the final authority in Athens was the Assembly, made up
of all wealthy citizens. Athenian citizens were males born of Athenian
parents. Women, slaves, and metics, or resident aliens, were not considered
citizens and could not participate in political life.
Many inequalities existed in Athenian life. Government was largely
controlled by aristocrats. The laws were not written down, and hardships
were imposed on the debt-ridden peasants and artisans. Soon the merchants
became discontented and demanded reforms.
Draco The first reforms in Athens were introduced by tyrants, who had the
support of most of the people. In 621 B.C. a tyrant named Draco issued a
written code of laws that applied to rich and poor alike. Draco's code made
many improvements, such as distinguishing between intentional and
unintentional killing. However, it became better known for its severe
penalties. For example, the death sentence was ordered for many offenses. I=
n
making the code so harsh, Draco hoped to end violent quarreling among
Athenian families.=20
Draco's code helped peasants and artisans in many ways; however, it showed
preferences for certain groups of people. The murderers of citizens were
treated more severely than the murderers of slaves and non-Athenians. The
code also favored the interests of wealthy merchants and aristocrats over
the interests of artisans and farmers, who were unable to pay their debts.
In fact, debtors became slaves of their creditors, or those to whom a debt
was owed. Solon The next series of reforms took place under the tyrant Solo=
n
in 594 B.C. Solon was born an aristocrat but made his living from trade.
When he became an archon, he issued new regulations and revised the law. Hi=
s
reforms favored the merchants at the expense of the aristocrats. For
example, wealth, rather than birth, became the major requirement for high
public office. Solon also set up the Council of 400, which was open to
wealthy merchants as well as aristocrats. The Council drafted measures that
went to the Assembly for approval.
Solon also introduced reforms that were popular among the common people. He
canceled all debts and freed debtors from slavery. He placed limits on
landownership and gave small landowners the right to vote in the Assembly.
Finally, citizenship was extended to merchants and artisans who were not
born Athenians.=20
After Solon left office, Athens was plunged into turmoil. During this time,
the aristocrats, farmers, merchants, and artisans quarreled over Solon's
reforms. The aristocrats thought that Solon had gone too far, while the
farmers thought he had not gone far enough. The merchants and artisans,
however, believed that Solon had wisely followed a moderate course.
Peisistratus About 560 B.C. the government of Athens was taken over by the
tyrant Peisistratus. Although a wealthy man, Peisistratus won the support o=
f
the farmers and the other lower classes. He pushed reforms in a more radica=
l
direction. Large estates were divided among the landless peasants. The poor
were given loans, and jobs on large public works projects. Peisistratus als=
o
promoted trade, craft production, and colonial expansion. At the same time,
he maintained peace with Athens's Greek neighbors.
Reformers after Peisistratus continued to reduce the powers of the nobles
and expand the participation of the common people in the
government. They introduced the practice of ostracism, by which the people
voted to exile undesirable politicians for ten years. They also enlarged th=
e
membership of the Council to 500. Representation on the Council was
determined by residence in geographic districts, rather than by wealth or
birth. The Athenian army was reorganized, and its generals were elected by
the people. By 500 B.C. Athens had taken major steps toward democracy.
Sparta
The development of Sparta contrasted greatly with that of Athens. Sparta wa=
s
the most important city-state in the Peloponnesus, a peninsula of southern
Greece. It was located in a fertile valley with a mild climate, adequate
water, and rich soil. As a result, Sparta's economy was based on
agriculture. Although the Spartans sought new wealth, they avoided trade an=
d
did not establish many overseas colonies. Instead they invaded neighboring
areas, added to their farmlands, and enslaved the local people.
Population The population n of Sparta was divided into three groups. The
first group was the Spartans themselves. Descended from the Dorians, the
Spartans made up only 10 percent of the population. In spite of their small
numbers, they were the ruling class. Male Spartans had full equality among
themselves and were the only ones who could be citizens. The second group
was the perioeci, made up of merchants, artisans, and farmers from the
conquered communities. Although they were free, the perioeci had few
political rights. The third group was the helots, or slaves, who worked the
land for the Spartans. The helots made up about 60 percent of the populatio=
n
of Sparta.=20
Government Sparta was officially governed by two kings who ruled jointly.
The kings, however, had little power. Their only tasks were to lead the arm=
y
and conduct religious services. An assembly, made up of all citizens over
the age of 30, passed laws and decided questions of war and peace. Each yea=
r
the Assembly chose five overseers, known as ephors, to manage public
affairs. A senate assisted the ephors. It was made up of men over 60, who
were chosen to serve for life. The Senate proposed laws to the Assembly and
served as a supreme court.
Social Life The Spartans feared rebellion by the conquered peoples. After a=
n
unsuccessful revolt in the 600'S B.C., they placed secret agents among the
helots and perioeci to report on any plots against the polis. To maintain
order, male Spartans were organized into a permanent army and soon became
known as the toughest soldiers in the Greek world. Since the helots did all
the work on the land, the Spartans were free to devote themselves to
full-time military training.
Life in Sparta revolved around the army and military values. Ephors examine=
d
all newborn infants to see if they were healthy. If they were, they were
allowed to live. If they were not, they were left on a hillside to die. At
the age of seven, boys were taken from their homes and trained for military
service. They lived in military camps under strict discipline. The goals of
their training were physical strength, endurance, fighting skills, and
loyalty. At 20, young men became citizen-soldiers and were sent to frontier
areas. At 30, they were expected to marry but they
could not have a household of their own. They had to live and eat in
military barracks, where they shared expenses with other soldiers. They
could retire from the army when they reached age 60.
Spartan women had more freedom than the women of other Greek city-states.
They mixed freely with their husbands' friends and enjoyed sports like
wrestling, boxing, and racing. They were trained to run their own household=
s
and to raise healthy and strong children. When Spartan women sent their men
into battle, they told them to return either as victors carrying their
shields or as dead men on their shields.
As Sparta became more militaristic, its people became known for their
extreme simplicity and distaste for luxury. Spartans shunned the arts and
intellectual activities. They were suspicious of any new ideas or practices
that would bring changes to their society. For example, they used heavy iro=
n
bars instead of coins as currency. In this way, Spartans hoped to discourag=
e
trade and to maintain their traditional self-reliance. While other Greek
city-states improved their production, trade, and standards of living,
Sparta remained a poor agricultural society. that depended on the labor of
slaves.=20
3 Wars and Expansion
The developing Greek city-states faced a growing threat from the Persian
Empire. At this time, the Persians were the strongest military power in the
world. In 546 B.C. Persian armies conquered the Greek city-states in Ionia.
The Ionians disliked their conquerors and were restless under Persian rule.
Persian Wars
In 499 B.C. the Ionians revolted against the Persians. They were supported
in their rebellion by Athens and other cities on the Greek mainland. The
Athenian fleet arrived in Asia Minor, and the Athenian army burned Sardis,
the Persian headquarters in the area. Four years later, the Persians
counterattacked and burned the Ionian city of Miletus. The men of Miletus
were killed, and the women and children were taken to Persia as slaves.
Marathon After putting down the Ionian rebellion, King Darius I of Persi=
a
realized that his victory would not be complete as long as Athens and the
other Greek city-states continued to aid the Ionians. In 490 B.C. he sent a=
n
army and a fleet across the Aegean Sea to attack the Greek city-states. The
Athenians hurriedly prepared
for defense. They sent Philippides, a long-distance runner, to Sparta to as=
k
for that city's help. Philippides covered the 140 miles (224 kilometers) in
less than 48 hours. The Spartans, who were celebrating a religious festival=
,
did not help immediately. Except for the aid of several small towns, Athens
had to face the Persians alone.
The Athenians and the Persians met at Marathon, a seaside plain 26 miles
(41.6 kilometers) north of Athens. There, the smaller Athenian force
decisively defeated the larger Persian army. According, to legend, the
Athenians sent a runner to carry news of the victory to Athens. The runner
reached the agora of the city and cried out "Nike!," the Greek word for
victory. Then, he fell to the ground, dead of exhaustion.'
The Athenian triumph at Marathon gave the Greeks more time to organize thei=
r
forces. Athens gained enormous prestige from this victory, and was soon
recognized as a rival to Sparta.
Salamis =20
After Marathon, the Persians left Greece, but they did not stay away for
long.
Xerxes, Darius I's son and successor, was determined to avenge the defeat
and punish the Greeks. The Greeks were aware of the Persian threat and
worked to increase their military strength. Athens built a new fleet and
became the strongest sea power among the city-states. Sparta developed the
strongest army.=20
In 480 B.C. Xerxes assembled an army of 100,000 Persian soldiers. The
soldiers moved along the northern Aegean shore while the fleet, numbering
about 3,000 ships, sailed along, the coast. When the Persians entered
Greece, Xerxes sent messengers to demand the surrender of the Greek
city-states. Many of the weaker city-states were frightened by the Persian
invasion and declared their neutrality. But Athens and Sparta, along with
their allies, banded together to defend their territories.
At first the Greeks suffered many setbacks . As the Persian forces moved
steadily southward toward Athens, a Spartan-led Greek force tried to delay
them by holding a narrow mountain pass at Thermopylae. After a heroic
defense, all the Greeks at Thermopylae were killed and the Persians broke
through. Xerxes and his forces captured Athens, now a deserted city, and
burned its acropolis.
Although Athens was destroyed, the Greeks continued to fight the war. A
Greek fleet, mostly Athenian, met the Persian fleet at the Bay of Salamis.
There, the Persians were defeated in one of the great naval battles of
history.=20
After the battle at Salamis, the fighting turned in favor of the Greeks.
Greek armies defeated the Persians in several important battles, and the
Persian forces retreated from the Greek mainland. As a result of their
triumph, the Greeks gained security and a new pride and self-confidence,
which enabled them to advance their civilization.
Golden Age of Athens
After the departure of the Persians, the people of Athens quickly rebuilt
the city and reorganized its government. They further reduced the power of
the aristocrats. At the same time, a new officer called a strategos, or
general, emerged. The strategos, elected by male citizens, became the most
important Athenian official.
Athens organized a defensive alliance with the other Greek city-states. The
alliance aimed to free the Ionian city-states that were still under Persian
rule, and to ward off any future Persian invasions. Athens provided most of
the land and naval forces. The other city-states had to furnish money and
ships. The treasury of the alliance was kept at the Aegean island of Delos.
Because of the important role of Delos, the alliance became known as the
Delian League. As head of the Delian League, Athens became strong and
influential.=20
Pericles=20
In 461 B.C. a young aristocrat named Pericles was elected strategos. With
the exception of the year 444 B.C., he was reelected annually until his
death in 429 B.C. While in power, Pericles carried out a large public works
program to make Athens the most beautiful city-state in Greece.
The government of Athens did not have planned budgets, and the Assembly
approved building expenditures without providing -funds. As a result,
Pericles had to tap private sources of wealth. First, he forced the rich to
make generous, "donations"' to the city. Later, he moved the treasury of th=
e
Delian League to Athens. The money contributed to the treasury by Athens'
allies was then used to improve the city. Pericles justified this policy on
the ground. that the allies were paying Athens for protection.
Although the allies complained, the people of Athens supported Pericles, wh=
o
was able to provide them with jobs and money.
Athenian Democracy=20
Pericles favored the extension of democracy in Athens. He increased the
number of government officials and provided pay for their services. This
reform made it p ossible for even the poorest citizen to hold public office=
.
Soon about one-third of Athenian citizens were involved in government work.
Many wealthy Athenians saw democracy as a threat and attacked Pericles'
reform. They claimed that it would bankrupt the city and encourage laziness=
.
In a famous address, recorded by the historian Thucydides, Pericles defende=
d
the ideals of Athenian democracy:
Our constitution is called a democracy because power is in the hands not of
a minority but of the whole people. When it is a question of settling
private disputes, everyone is equal before the law; when it is a question o=
f
putting one man before another in positions of public responsibility, what
counts is not membership of a particular class, but the actual ability whic=
h
the man possesses. No one, so long as he has it in him to be of service to
the state is kept in political
obscurity because of poverty .... *
There were still limits, however, to Athenian democracy. All male citizens
could take part in the government, and many of them exercised this right.
Yet other Athenians could not participate in political life. Women were
acknowledged as citizens, but still could not vote or hold office. Metics
and slaves continued to be refused citizenship, and could not participate i=
n
government. Nonetheless, politics at this time was more advanced in Athens
than anywhere else in the world. In spite of its limitations, ancient Athen=
s
contributed much to the western concept of democratic government.
Peloponnesian Wars
In foreign, relations, Pericles favored peace with Persia and with Athenss
Greek neighbors. As Athens gained more power and prestige, he also worked t=
o
extend trade and shipping. As a result of Pericles' policies, the Delian
League was gradually transformed into an Athenian empire.
Many member city-states, however, became dissatisfied with Athenian control
of the League. Some tried to leave it, but they were treated as rebels and
punished. Sparta, Corinth, and other city-states outside the League grew
alarmed at the rise of Athens. Led by Sparta, they formed an alliance known
as the Peloponnesian League.
A struggle for power soon developed between Athens and Sparta. In 431 B.C.
tensions led to a series of conflicts known as the Peloponnesian Wars. At
the beginning of the fighting, Pericles planned Athenian strategy. To avoid
a direct battle with the well-trained Spartan troops, he moved the rural
population of Athens behind the city walls. In addition, he ordered the
Athenian navy to attack the Spartan coast and to keep the sea-lanes open fo=
r
supplies.=20
The first year of war passed without a clear outcome. Since Sparta had no
navy, the Athenians expected to hold out indefinitely. But in the second
year, a plague broke out in Athens. It killed about one-third of the
population. One of those who died was Pericles. Following his death, Athens
was governed by weak leaders. They made peace with Sparta in 424 B.C., but
war broke out five years later. In 405 B.C., during this second phase of th=
e
Peloponnesian Wars, Athens was defeated by Sparta.
The Peloponnesian Wars brought disaster all the Greeks, both victors and
vanquished. Many city-states declined in population, unemployment became
widespread, and prices rose sharply. Sparta fell from its top position, and
there was no powerful city-state to take its place. As a result, fighting
broke out once more among the city-states. This warfare wasted their
resources and endangered their freedom.
Rise of Macedonia
While the Greek city-states were fighting each other, people known as the
Macedonians were building a strong kingdom north of Greece. The Macedonians=
,
like the Greeks, were a mixture of
Indo-European groups
The Macedonian language contained many Greek words and expressions. The
Greeks, however, thought of the Macedonians as "'backward," and refused to
accept them as true Greeks.
Philip II, the Macedonian king, admired Greek culture and wanted to make
Macedonia the leading power in Greece. During his youth, he had been a
hostage in Thebes, a Greek city-state. While imprisoned, he had learned a
great deal about Greek political affairs and war tactics. As king, he used
this knowledge to organize his troops and train an excellent cavalry. In a
short time, Philip unified Macedonia and conquered the northern Greek
city-states.=20
The Greek city-states farther south relied on Philip's support to fight eac=
h
other. By prolonging their battles, Philip weakened his Greek opponents. In
339 B.C. he defeated them at the Battle of Chaeronea. After this victory,
Philip, as ruler of Greece, announced that he would lead the Greeks in a wa=
r
against Persia. However, before he could carry out his plans, Philip was
murdered. His son Alexander became king.
Indo-European groups.
The Macedonian language contained many Greek words and expressions. The
Greeks, however, thought of the Macedonians as "backward," and refused to
accept them as true Greeks.
Philip II, the Macedonian king, admired Greek culture and wanted to make
Macedonia the leading power in Greece. During his youth, he had been a
hostage in Thebes, a Greek city-state . While imprisoned, he had learned a
great deal about Greek political affairs and war tactics. As king, he used
this knowledge to organize his troops and train an excellent cavalry. In a
short time, Philip unified Macedonia and conquered the northern Greek
city-states.=20
The Greek city-states farther south relied on Philip's support to fight eac=
h
other. By prolong=20
ing their battles, Philip weakened his Greek opponents. In 339 B.C. he
defeated them at the Battle of Chaeronea. After this victory, Philip, as
ruler of Greece, announced that he would lead the Greeks in a war against
Persia. However, before he could carry out his plans, Philip was murdered.
His son Alexander became king.
Alexander the Great
Alexander was only 20 when he became the ruler of Macedonia and Greece. He
was handsome, strong, intelligent, and very ambitious. A
commander of the Macedonian army since he was 16, Alexander was highly
respected by both his Macedonian and Greek soldiers. By 334 B.C. Alexander"=
s
troops were ready to invade the Persian Empire. With 35,000 soldiers,
Alexander crossed the Hellespont, a narrow body of water separating Asia an=
d
Europe. This act was the first step in the creation of a new empire.
Early Conquests=20
Alexander had his first major encounter with the Persians at the Granicus
River in western Asia Minor. He led his cavalry through the shallow water
and up the riverbank to the enemy's ranks. Foot soldiers follow, ed to win =
a
decisive victory. After this triumph, Alexander sent 300 coats of Persian
armor to Athens as a thanksgiving offering to the goddess Athena.
Alexander then marched along the coast of Asia Minor, freeing Greek
city-states from Persian rule. Meanwhile, Darius III, the Persian king,
gathered a large army to stop Alexander's advance. The Greeks and Persians
finally met at Issus in Syria. Alexander's superb tactics once
again resulted in a Greek victory. Darius III fled to Persia, but his
mother, wife, and daughters were captured by Alexander, who treated them
with respect.=20
Instead of pursuing Darius, Alexander and his troops moved south along the
Mediterranean coast. They captured the seaports of Phoenicia and cut off th=
e
Persian fleet from its main supply bases. After a long siege, the port city
of Tyre was captured, and the entire Persian fleet surrendered to Alexander=
.
Late in 332 B.C., Alexander reac e gyp e Egyptians, discontented under
Persian rule, welcomed Alexander and declare im a pharaoh. In Egypt,
Alexander established a new city and named it Alexandria after himself.
Alexandria soon became the leading port on the Mediterranean and a major
center of civilization in the ancient world.
Final Campaigns=20
In 331 B.C. Alexander entered Mesopotamia. He met Darius and a large Persia=
n
army east of the Tigris River near Arbela. The Persian army included
infantry, elephants, and chariots with knives extending from the wheels. It
was no match for Alexander's forces, however, who won a great victory.
Alexander then captured the key cities of the Persian Empire: Babylon, Susa=
,
and Persepolis. His soldiers destroyed the royal palaces and seized the
great treasures of gold and silver in these cities. When it was learned tha=
t
Darius had been killed by one of his generals, Alexander declared himself
king of Persia.=20
After the defeat of Persia, many Greek soldiers were tired of fighting and
wanted no more conquests. Alexander allowed them to return
home. But the Macedonian troops remained with him. In 327 B.C. Alexander le=
d
them east to India. During three years of fighting, he conquered lands in
central Asia and the Indus River Valley. Alexander hoped to go farther into
India, but his army refused. He finally returned to Babylon, which he
planned to make the capital of his empire.
Alexander's Empire
In his conquests, Alexander acquired much of the civilized world. His empir=
e
stretched from western Greece to northern India. It covered more than 11,00=
0
miles (17,600 kilometers).
Goals=20
Alexander hoped to create a strong government for the empire that would
permanently unite Europe and Asia. He wanted to combine the best of eastern
and western cultures into one civilization. Alexander personally tried to
promote these goals. He wore eastern dress and imitated the court life of
Persian kings. He married a Persian woman and also ordered thousands of his
soldiers to marry Persian women.
Alexander spread Greek culture throughout the Middle East. He brought
botanists,, geographers, historians, surveyors, and architects with him on
his conquests. Soon Greek settlements were founded throughout the Asian
parts of the empire.
Alexander, however, did not live long enough to fully realize his goals. In
323 B.C., he died of T fever in Babylon at the age of 33. In spite of his
short life, Alexander had become a legendary figure and was known as "'the
Great." His military accomplishments were remembered and admired by
succeeding generations.
Divided Empire=20
Following Alexander's death, his generals divided his vast empire into thre=
e
domains. Seleucus, a cavalry officer, ruled the Asian provinces and founded
the Seleucid dynasty. The Seleucids built many cities, the most famous of
which was the capital Antioch in Syria. By the 100'S B.C. the Seleucids had
lost most of their provinces. Syria, however, remained their stronghold
until the coming of the Romans in the next century.
Another general, Ptolemy, ruled Egypt and made Alexandria his capital. He
and his successors governed with the absolute power of the ancient pharaohs=
.
They claimed divinity and owned all the land. They fought frequent wars wit=
h
the Seleucids. The most famous Ptolemaic ruler was Queen Cleopatra, who los=
t
her kingdom to the Romans in 30 B.C.
Macedonia and Greece made up the third domain of Alexander's empire. At
first, the entire region was ruled by the general, Antigonus. But within a
short time, the Greek city-states declared their independence and began
fighting with each other. The successors of Antigonus continued to rule
Macedonia. They sometimes intervened in Greek affairs to settle disputes
among the city-states. Finally, in the 100'S B.C. Macedonia and Greece were
defeated by Rome and absorbed into the Roman Empire.
Greek Civilization
During the 400'S B.C. Athens became the chief center of Greek civilization.
Its thinkers, writers, artists, and builders set standards that were admire=
d
and copied by other Greek city-states.
Art and Architecture
After the Persian Wars, the people of Athens rebuilt their city. Under the
rule of Pericles, they turned their acropolis into an architectural
treasure. On the summit of the acropolis, builders erected magnificent
temples and palaces. These buildings were known for their rows of marble
columns, beautiful statues, and harmonious geometric designs. Some of them
still stand today. They include the Propylaea, or the gateway to the
Acropolis, and the Erectheum, a temple to two noted Athenian goddesses. But
the most splendid piece of architecture that has survived is the Parthenon,
the temple of the goddess Athena. Built in 14 years, the Parthenon measures
230 feet (69 meters) by 100 feet (30 meters) and is 65 feet (19.5 meters)
tall.=20
The Athenians also excelled in sculpture and painting. Sculptors showed an
interest in the beauty of the human body. They carved monumental figures
with amazing skill and simplicity.
Beautiful pottery was also produced. On elegantly-shaped vases, painters
made graceful designs and portrayed scenes of daily life.
Drama
The Greeks were the first to write and perform plays. Most of their dramati=
c
productions appeared in poetic form during the 400'S B.C. The earliest ones
were tragedies, or stories about human suffering that often had unhappy
endings. Based on ancient legends, they presented various moral and
philosophical issues.
Aeschylus=20
The first great tragedian, or writer of tragedies, was Aeschylus (525-456
B.C.). He wrote more than 70 plays, of which only seven have survived. In
his tragedies, Aeschylus looked at the relationships of gods and people as
well as the conflicts that emerge in human society. His most famous work is
a trilogy, or set of three plays, called the Oresteia. The Oresteia traces =
a
series of violent and tragic events in the family of the legendary king
Agamemnon. In the end, the plays show that punishment for wrongdoing should
be decided by the law of the community rather than by personal revenge.
Sophocles =20
Sophocles (496-406 B.C.) was the next great tragedian. He served as a
general in the Athenian army and lived through the tragic
years of the Peloponnesian Wars. In his works, Sophocles examined human
pride and guilt. His most famous play, Oedipus Rex, deals with the plight o=
f
Oedipus, a king who unknowingly kills his father and marries his mother.
Oedipus uses all his po wers to solve the crime, only to discover that he
is the murderer. Another play, Antigone,
relates the story of a young woman who chooses to obey her conscience and
accept suffering rather than follow the orders of her uncle.
Although Sophocles showed the limitations of human nature in his works, he
also revealecd human compassion and courage.
Euripides=20
Euripides (484-406 B.C.) was the last of the great Greek tragedians. In his
works, he supported Athenian democracy and criticized long-standing beliefs
and practices. He was also sensitive to the plight of women. In his play Th=
e
Alcestis, a husband allows his wife to die in order to save his own life.
After her death, he suffers remorse for his foolish decision. Another play,
The Trojan Women, describes the horrors of the Trojan War. It portrays the
cruelty of Greek soldiers toward the women of Troy whom they have captured.
Because of their frank treatment of issues, the pla ys of Euripides shocked
many Athenians. As result, Euripides was an unpopular figure during his
lifetime.=20
Comedy=20
The Greeks also developed a second type of play known as a comedy, or a pla=
y
with a humorous theme and a happy ending. Comedies reflected everyday life
and were popular among the common people. The most famous comedian, or '
writer of comedies, was Aristophanes (448-380 B.C.). In his works,
Aristophanes made witty comments about the leading figures and issues of hi=
s
day. For example, in the comedy The Clouds, Socrates is shown as a lofty
thinker who appears in a basket floating in midair.
Education and Sports
The Greeks believed that people should strive for excellence in developing
their minds and bodies. They emphasized the importance of a well-rounded
education.=20
Learning =20
Beginning in the 400=B9s B. C., the sons of citizens were able to receive som=
e
form of
schooling. At the age of seven, they began their education at private
schools. There they learned such subjects as music, reading, writing, and
poetry. After four years, boys from poorer families left school and learned
a trade. Those from wealthy backgrounds continued their edu-
cation under tutors called sophists. They learned geometry, astronomy, and
rhetoric, or public speaking. Tutors and the more advanced stu-
dents also discussed ethical, political, and philosophical questions.
Sports=20
The Greeks believed that "a sound mind is in a sound body." Thus, they gave
an important place to gymnastics and sporting activities. Because of their
interest in physical fitness, the Greeks were the first people to develop
organized athletic competitions.
The most famous sporting events in ancient Greece were the Olympic Games.
Begun in 776 B.C., they were held every four years at Olympia in honor of
the god Zeus. All trading and fighting stopped during the Olympics. The
Olympics were so important that the Greeks measured time by the four-year
intervals between the games. Each interval was called an olympiad.
Athletes from all over the Greek world came to compete in the games. Only
male athletes, however, were allowed to take part. Women could not compete
in, or even watch, the games. About 40,000 spectators sat on grassy slopes
overlooking the field area. Olympic competition at first consisted of only =
a
footrace. Later it grew into several athletic events. '
Olympic winners were regarded as heroes. At the games, they received crowns
made from olive leaves. They were held in high esteem by their city-states.
Statues were built in their honor, and parades were held. Some city-states
even excused great athletes from paying taxes.
Greek Thought
The 400's and 300'S B.C. saw the flowering of Greek thought in Athens.
During this period, a number of important thinkers developed and organized
ideas that have since formed the intellectual heritage of western
civilization.=20
Socrates=20
Greek philosophers believed that through a process of logical thinking,
people could discover wisdom, truth, and the laws of nature. Socrates, an
Athenian from a poor family, was the first of the great philosophers. Born
in 470 B.C., he gave up his craft as a sculptor and devoted his time to
teaching. To instruct his students, Socrates developed a teaching technique
later called the Socratic method. In using this method, , ' he would ask
students pointed questions without giving them answers. Then he would oppos=
e
the students' answers with logical arguments. As a result, the students
would be forced to defend their statements. In this way Socrates hoped that
his students would begin to think for themselves. They would be able to
clear away mistaken ideas and discover eternal truths.
Because of his sincerity and sharp intellect, Socrates gained many
followers. However, prominent Athenians viewed his teachings as a threat to
the city. In 399 B.C. they accused him of corrupting the young people and
plotting to overthrow the government. A jury of 500 citizens tried Socrates
and sentenced him to death. Declaring his innocence and faithful to his
ideas, Socrates carried out the sentence himself. He drank poisonous hemloc=
k
juice and died among his grieving followers.
Plato =20
Socrates' work was carried on by his pupil Plato (427-347 B.C.). Born an
Athenian aristocrat, Plato thought about entering politics. Instead, he
became a teacher and opened a school called the Academy. During his
teaching, Plato took the ideas of Socrates and organized them into the firs=
t
system of philosophical thought.
Plato also carried out the earliest studies in political science. In his
work The Republic, he presented a plan for what he thought would be the
ideal society and government. Unlike many Athenians, Plato disliked
democracy, claiming that it allowed people too much freedom.' He distrusted
the lower classes and wanted only the most intelligent and well-educated
citizens to participate in government. In addition, Plato gave more
importance to the state than to the individual. He believed that each perso=
n
should place service to the community above strictly personal goals.
Aristotle=20
The last great philosopher of ancient Greece was Aristotle (384-322 B.C.). =
A
pupil of Plato, and later a tutor of Alexander the Great, Aristotle opened =
a
school in Athens called the Lyceum. At this school, he made important
contributions to the field of logic. Aristotle's work in logic gave western
thinkers an important intellectual tool for exploring knowledge in any area=
.
Aristotle also closely observed the natural world and wrote about his
findings. He made studies in biology, political science, physics, drama, an=
d
other fields. Because of his wide range of knowledge, Aristotle was later
called " the master of them that know." His writings became intellectual
classics.
Historians=20
The Greeks used their intellectual skills in the writing of history.
Herodotus, known as the Father of History (484-425 B.C.), was the first
Greek historian. He wrote about the Persian Wars and arranged his material
with great artistry. Although he sometimes failed to separate history from
legend, Herodotus passed on important information about the events and
customs of his day to later historians.
Greek Drama p. 73
1. Identify: Miletus, Marathon, Salamis, Xerxes, Thermopylae, Delian
League, Pericles, Peloponnesian League, Macedonia, Philip II, Alexander the
Great, Hellespont, Darius III, Issus, Alexandria, Seleucus, Antioch,
Ptolemy, Cleopatra, Antigonus.
--MS_Mac_OE_3143630851_35491_MIME_Part
Content-type: text/html; charset="ISO-8859-1"
Content-transfer-encoding: quoted-printable
greeks
Chapter Three
Greece Civilization
While important civilizations emerged in the East, the Greeks developed the=
first great civilization in the West. They influenced western civilization =
more than any other people of the ancient world. Greek philosophers gave the=
West such basic ideas as democracy and the worth of the individual. Greek t=
hinkers also developed the scientific method, the basic rules of geometry, a=
nd the principles of logic, or the science of reasoning. The Greek language =
shaped every major language in the western world. Other important contributi=
ons of ancient Greece were drama, athletic competition, and various styles o=
f architecture. In fact, much of what has been accomplished in the West sinc=
e ancient times is based on Greek thought and culture.
Like other peoples, the Greeks were influenced by the geography of their ho=
meland. Ancient Greece included the southern part of Europe's Balkan Peninsu=
la and an archipelago in the Aegean Sea. The Greek mainland is divided by mo=
untain ranges and water inlets. Short, swift rivers flow from the interior t=
o the sea. This type of terrain was not favorable for the development of a l=
and-based civilization. However, the long, indented coastline of Greece prov=
ided many fine harbors. Most Greeks therefore settled on the coastal plains =
and the islands. Isolated from each other, they formed many small self-gover=
ning communities dependent on sea trade.
Early Aegean Civilizations
Greek civilization grew out of earlier civilizations that flourished in the=
Aegean area between 3100 and 1100 B.C. These Aegean societies were eventual=
ly destroyed by natural disasters and foreign invasions.
For nearly 3,000 years, the Aegean past was shrouded in mystery and legend.=
Then during the 1870's, Heinrich Schliemann, a German archeologist, uncover=
ed many of the "'lost" cities of the Aegean world. Schliemann's di=
scoveries soon led to more excavations by other archeologists. In 1900, Sir =
Arthur Evans, a British archeologist, unearthed the remains of a great civil=
ization on the island of Crete.' Further discoveries in this century have he=
lped historians piece together the puzzle of early Aegean civilizations.
Minoans
The first Aegean civilization arose on Crete around 3100 B.C. Sir Arthur Ev=
ans named this Cretan civilization "Minoan" after King Minos, its =
legendary founder. He also divided Minoan history into three periods: Early =
Minoan (3100-2100 B.C.), Middle Minoan (2100-1600 B.C.), and Late Minoan (16=
00-1100 B.C.). Evans was able to determine these dates as a result of his di=
scovery of both Egyptian and Minoan pottery in the same archeological layers=
. Knowing the age of the Egyptian pottery, he was able to figure the age of =
the Minoan, pottery. Evans then worked out the Minoan periods of history so =
that they roughly matched the Egyptian periods of the Old Kingdom, Middle Ki=
ngdom, and New Kingdom. Early Crete During the Early Minoan period, the peop=
le of Crete settled in small communities ruled by chiefs. They lived in bric=
k houses, made bronze goods, and became expert sailors. By about 2000 B.C. t=
he Minoans had developed a thriving trade throughout the eastern Mediterrane=
an. As a result, Minoan culture was influenced by the cultures of Egypt and =
the Fertile Crescent. For example, Linear A the earliest style of Minoan wri=
ting, is related to the Semitic languages. Scholars, however, have yet to de=
cipher it completely.
Knossos During the Middle Minoan period, the city of Knossos rose to power =
and controlled all of Crete. Around 1800 B.C. the ruler of Knossos completed=
the building of a large palace, the ruins of which still stand today. The p=
alace covered about 5 acres (2 hectares). It consisted of several stone hous=
es that surrounded a central courtyard. Passageways and rooms twisted and tu=
rned in all directions to form a labyrinth, or maze. The palace had a draina=
ge system, hot and cold running water, and portable fireboxes to heat the ro=
oms. In its warehouses were stored large jars containing grain, wine, and ol=
ive oil. About 1400 B.C. the palace was either destroyed by invaders or a na=
tural disaster.
Crete's Golden Age During the Late Minoan period, Crete reached the height =
of its power. Minoans grew wealthy from their control of trade between the M=
iddle East and the Aegean area. Their rulers rebuilt the palace at Knossos a=
nd constructed three new palaces elsewhere on the island. These residences, =
as well as the cities surrounding them, had no fortifications or walls to pr=
otect them. To guard against outside attack, the Minoans relied on their str=
ong navy.
More than 90 cities and towns developed throughout Crete. Knossos was the l=
argest city, with a population of about 100,000. Cobblestone roads connected=
the important cities on the island. The most famous road ran from Knossos t=
o Phaestus. It was 40 miles (64 kilometers) long and had an inn where travel=
ers could rest their animals and eat in a beautifully decorated dining hall.=
Society and Culture The Minoans were divided into four main social groups: =
nobles, merchants and artisans, farmers, and slaves. Minoan women enjoyed a =
higher status than women in other civilizations. In addition to household du=
ties, they were permitted to attend sporting events. Minoan religion had!: m=
ore goddesses than gods. The chief deity was the Great Goddess, or Mother Ea=
rth, whom the Minoans believed caused the growth of all living things.
The Minoans enjoyed life and delighted in beautiful objects. Minoan artisan=
s designed delicate jewelry and made decorative cups and vases with painting=
s of flowers and animals. They also produced a type of pottery that was as t=
hin as an eggshell. The walls of Minoan homes were painted with brightly col=
ored murals showing scenes from daily life.
The Minoans loved sports. They probably built the worlds first arena, where=
boxing matches were held. Another favorite sport was bull leaping, a combin=
ation of acrobatic skill and bullfighting. Men and women "fought" =
the bull together. A man would grab the bull's horns and do a somersault, la=
nding on the bull's back. Then he would do a back flip. Standing behind the =
bull, a woman would catch her partner as he landed. Many experts believe bul=
l leaping was a religious ritual as well as a sport.
Minoan civilization lasted until about 1400 B.C. At that time, unknown inva=
ders attacked Knossos and left it in ruins. Other Minoan cities soon decline=
d, and eventually disappeared. Around 1100 B.C. new invaders called the Myce=
naeans arrived in Crete from the Greek mainland.
The Mycenaeans linked Crete to the emerging civilization of Greece. Minoan =
words entered the Greek language, and Minoan styles influenced Greek art. Th=
e Greeks also borrowed Minoan legends, and added to them. The most famous is=
the story of the warrior Theseus and his killing of the Minotaur, a mytholo=
gical Cretan monster that was half-man and half-animal. The Greeks also beli=
eved that Zeus, their chief god, was born in the mountains of Crete.
Mycenaeans
Before their invasion of Crete, the Mycenaeans had built a major civilizati=
on in southern Greece. They originally entered Greece from the north around =
2000 B.C. At that time, the Mycenaeans were known as Achaeans. By 1600 B.C. =
they had intermarried with the local population and were settled in farming =
towns and villages.
Mycenae
The principal center of Mycenean civilization was Myce=
nae, a city on the mainland about ten miles (16 kilometers) inland from the =
Aegean Sea. In 1876, Heinrich Schliemann discovered six tombs in Mycenae tha=
t revealed the wealth of the Mycenaeans. The most impressive finds were seve=
ral golden masks, which had been placed over the faces of deceased warrior-k=
ings.
Cities
Unlike the Minoan cities, Mycenaean cities were highly =
fortified. For example, the walls of Mycenae were 23 feet (6.9 meters) thick=
. Outside the walls were the estates of warriornobles. Slaves and tenants li=
ved in villages on the estates. They farmed the nobles' land and brought pro=
duce to city markets. Mycenaean cities were connected by good roads and brid=
ges. In times of danger, the cities provided protection to people from the r=
ural areas.
The dominant buildings in many Mycenaean cities were palaces. They served a=
s centers of production as well as government administration. Within the pal=
aces, artisans tanned leather, sewed clothes, fashioned jars for storing win=
e and olive oil, and made bronze weapons. Government officials kept detailed=
accounts of production and trade. To help in collecting taxes, they also ke=
pt records of the wealth of every person in the city. Taxes were collected i=
n kind, or in the form of grain and other produce - These items were stored =
in the palace and used to pay government employees.
Heroic Age
By the 1400'S B.C., the Mycenaeans had developed into powerful seafarers an=
d had begun raiding nearby lands. Once they conquered Crete, the Mycenaeans =
dominated the Aegean area. They remained powerful until the 900'S B.C. This =
period of Mycenaean strength is called the Heroic Age of Greece.
The Mycenaeans left no written history. Instead ' they passed on stories ab=
out their kings and heroes by word of mouth. Some of these stories were base=
d on actual people and events. With constant retelling, they became legends =
and were used to explain the relationships between humans and gods. In this =
form, the Mycenaean stories became the basis of Greek mythology.
Trojan War
The most famous episode of the Heroic Age was the Trojan War. This conflict=
was fought in the mid-1200'S B.C. between the Mycenaeans and the people of =
Troy, a major trading city of Asia Minor. According to later Greek accounts,=
Paris, a prince of Troy, fell in love with Helen, the wife of a Mycenaean k=
ing. Paris kidnapped Helen and took her to Troy. To avenge this deed, the My=
cenaeans laid siege for several years to Troy, but were unable to capture th=
e city. Finally, they tricked the Trojans by building a huge wooden horse. T=
he best Mycenaean soldiers hid inside the horse, while the rest boarded thei=
r ships and pretended to sail away. Thinking that the Mycenaeans had gone, t=
he Trojans brought the horse into the city. The Mycenaeans later crept out a=
nd attacked and burned Troy.
Although the details of the Trojan War are legendary, Heinrich Schliemann i=
n 1870 proved that the city of Troy had actually existed. Since then, archeo=
logists have uncovered the remains of nine cities on the site. Each successi=
ve city was built on the ruins of the one before it. Experts now believe tha=
t the seventh city was the legendary Troy of the 1200'S B.C.
Dark Age
About ll00 B.C. invaders known as Dorians entered Greece ce from the north.=
Because of their superior iron weapons, they were able to conquer the Mycen=
aens. The Mycenaea Ionians, a people related to the Mycenaeans, fled
from southern Greeceto a region of Asia Minor bordering the Aegean Sea. The=
y set up a group of self-governing communities and called their new homeland=
, Ionia.
Due to these disruptive events, the Aegean world entered a "'dark age&=
quot; that lasted for more than 300 years. Contacts with the highly develope=
d civilizations of the Middle East were cut off. Overseas trade stopped, and=
the urban population declined. The Aegean people soon lost their skills in =
record-keeping, painting, and crafts.
In spite of these setbacks, a new civilization slowly emerged in Ionia and =
spread to the Greek mainland. Small, separate communities appeared along the=
coast of Greece and in the interior. The people of Ionia and Greece called =
themselves Hellenes, or "Greeks." This early Greek population was =
made up of two classes: landowning aristocrats or nobles, and poor peasants.=
The peasants served the nobles by tilling the land and fighting in local wa=
rs.
By 800 B.C. the Greeks began to produce their first literary works. Storyte=
llers known as bardsglorified the Mycenaean period and made it into an age o=
f heroes. The greatest of these performers was the blind poet Homer. He comp=
osed two great epic poems about the Trojan War and its results: the Iliad an=
d the Odyssey. The ancient Greeks memorized these epics and repeated them or=
ally until they were written down during the 500'S B.C. Today, the Iliad and=
the Odyssey are considered the first masterpieces of Greek literature.
Another early literary figure was Hesiod, a small landowner from southern G=
reece. Instead of praising war heroes of the past, he reflected on the injus=
tices of the "dark age" in which he was living. In his poem "=
'Works and Days," he described the hard life of the landless peasants, =
who worked the fields of their ruthless landlords. He also predicted the dec=
line of the world through five stages. The first was the Age of Gold; the la=
st, which spanned Hesiod's lifetime, was the Age of Iron. Hesiod characteriz=
ed the Age of Iron as a time when "'might made right" and when peo=
ple turned against their neighbors. In spite of his pessimism, Hesiod praise=
d the values of rural life, such as hard work, thrift, and simplicity. These=
values would later contribute to the rise of a new Greek civilization.
2 Rise of Hellenic Civilization
By 800 B.C. the Greeks had emerged from the "dark age" with a gre=
at deal of cultural unity. They spoke a common language, shared the same cus=
toms, and worshiped the same deities. However, they did not unite under a si=
ngle government. Instead, farming communities in Ionia and Greece joined tog=
ether and formed separate city-states. This period of Greek history is known=
as the Hellenic era.
Polis
Each city-state, known as a polis, was independent and developed its own pa=
ttern of life. The typical Greek polis grew around a fortified hill called a=
n acropolis. At the top of the acropolis was the royal palace and the temple=
of the local god or goddess. At its foot was the agora, or public square. T=
he agora became the political and business center of the polis. Citizens gat=
hered there to discuss politics and public affairs. The agora also served as=
a marketplace where artisans and merchants conducted business. Near the ago=
ra were many homes, shops, and gardens. The villages, fields, and orchards o=
utside this built-up area were also partof the city-state.
The polis was the geographical and political center of Greek life. It gave =
its citizens a sense of belonging and received from them the highest loyalty=
. Citizens had certain rights that non-citizens living in the polis did not =
have. They could vote, own property, hold public office, and speak for thems=
elves in court. In return, they were expected to participate in government a=
nd to defend the polis in time of war.
Economic Expansion
From 800 to 700 B.C., the Greek city-states began to play an important role=
in the Mediterranean world. Economic prosperity returned after the "da=
rk age," and trade increased. The population rose, and the city-states =
became overcrowded. As a result, many Greeks migrated to coastal areas aroun=
d the Mediterranean and Black Seas. There, they established colonies. By 500=
B.C. Greek colonies flourished from Spain in the west to the Black Sea in t=
he east.
The colonists maintained a strong attachment to their homeland. Each colony=
tended to come from the same city-stafe. Colonists called the city-state of=
their origin metropolis, or "mother city." Greek colonies were fu=
lly independent, but each kept close religious and cultural ties with its me=
tropolis. Colonies provided grain, wool, dried and salted fish, and slaves t=
o the homeland. In return, they received olive oil, wine, pottery, and cloth=
ing. As a result of this trade, the Greek world prospered.
Trade greatly influenced the development of Greek civilization. Greek merch=
ants and traders traveled throughout the Mediterranean and came into contact=
with other civilizations. As a result, they borrowed new ideas and techniqu=
es.
From the Phoenicians, the Greeks obtained an alphabet and adapted it to the=
ir language. They also used Phoenician skills to build longer and faster shi=
ps. Other foreign contributions to Greece were the Sumerian system of weight=
s and measures, and the Lydian practice of coining money.
Political Change Increased trade and commerce changed Greek political life.=
During the "dark age," each Greek community had been governed by =
a king with the assistance of a council of elders. Around the 700'S B.C. the=
city-states emerged, and the kings gradually lost power to the landholding =
aristocrats. Many aristocrats profited from the increase in trade. With thei=
r new economic power, they took control of city-state governments.
During the mid-600'S B.C., the city-states were divided by political confli=
cts. The aristocrats fought among themselves, and their hold on the city-sta=
tes weakened. At the same time., new fighting techniques made their military=
role obsolete, or outdated. Greek armies traditionally had consisted of a s=
mall number of aristocratic warriors equipped with horses and chariots. Late=
r, economic prosperity enabled a larger
number of Greeks to buy arms. As a result, the aristocratic army was replac=
ed by a citizen army composed mainly of prosperous farmers. This new army wa=
s based on the phalanx, an infantry unit armed with spears and swords that f=
ought in close formation, 16 rows deep.
The aristocrats were soon challenged by a rising middle class of wealthy me=
rchants and artisans. The merchants and artisans wanted to protect and expan=
d trade routes, while many of the aristocrats sought to protect and expand t=
heir lands. To advance their interests, the merchants and artisans opposed t=
he power of the aristocrats and demanded a greater role in government.
As the rich grew richer, the poor fell further into debt. Many peasants los=
t their land to the aristocrats and had to join part-time workers in the cit=
ies. Other poor people were sold into slavery. At the same time, some landow=
ners began to shift large areas of land from grain production to more profit=
able orchards and vineyards. As a result, many agricultural workers lost ful=
l-time employment and became seasonal laborers. In protest, the lower class =
backed the wealthy merchants and artisans against the aristocrats.
Tyrants &nbs=
p;
To advance their cause, the discontented groups backed the rise of leaders =
known
as tyrants. Tyrants were champions of the common people and promised better=
government. Each tyrant seized power from the aristocrats and set up one-pe=
rson rule. Once in power, tyrants weakened the landed aristocracy and suppor=
ted the merchants and artisans. Most were good administrators and reformers.=
They promoted trade, carried out many public works projects, and treated th=
e people justly. However, a few were harsh and gave the word "tyrant&qu=
ot; its present meaning-a cruel and unjust ruler.
Tyrants ruled in the various Greek city-states until the end of the 50 ' O'=
S B.C. They especially helped shape the early development of the greatest Gr=
eek city-states, Athens and Sparta.
Athens
Before the 600'S B.C. Athens was a small town in Attica, a peninsula of cen=
tral Greece. The region around Athens had poor, rocky soil, which made farmi=
ng difficult. As a result, many Athenians worked in the silver mines or made=
ceramics. They also became skilled traders and seafarers. Athens, however, =
did not establish overseas colonies as had other city-states. Instead, it ex=
tended its territory on the Greek mainland. By the 600'S B.C. it had brought=
all of the villages of Attica under its leadership.
Government Athens was at first ruled by kings. Athenian monarchs were prima=
rily religious and ceremonial leaders. They were elected by an assembly of c=
itizens and advised by a council of nobles. Other executives included a pole=
march, who led the armed forces, and an archon, who supervised government ad=
ministration. All important' government officials served one-year terms. Whe=
n their terms ended, they joined a council of past officeholders.
In the 600'S B. C. the final authority in Athens was the Assembly, made up =
of all wealthy citizens. Athenian citizens were males born of Athenian paren=
ts. Women, slaves, and metics, or resident aliens, were not considered citiz=
ens and could not participate in political life.
Many inequalities existed in Athenian life. Government was largely controll=
ed by aristocrats. The laws were not written down, and hardships were impose=
d on the debt-ridden peasants and artisans. Soon the merchants became discon=
tented and demanded reforms.
Draco The first reforms in Athens were introduced by tyrants, who had the s=
upport of most of the people. In 621 B.C. a tyrant named Draco issued a writ=
ten code of laws that applied to rich and poor alike. Draco's code made many=
improvements, such as distinguishing between intentional and unintentional =
killing. However, it became better known for its severe penalties. For examp=
le, the death sentence was ordered for many offenses. In making the code so =
harsh, Draco hoped to end violent quarreling among Athenian families.
Draco's code helped peasants and artisans in many ways; however, it showed =
preferences for certain groups of people. The murderers of citizens were tre=
ated more severely than the murderers of slaves and non-Athenians. The code =
also favored the interests of wealthy merchants and aristocrats over the int=
erests of artisans and farmers, who were unable to pay their debts. In fact,=
debtors became slaves of their creditors, or those to whom a debt was owed.=
Solon The next series of reforms took place under the tyrant Solon in 594 B=
.C. Solon was born an aristocrat but made his living from trade. When he bec=
ame an archon, he issued new regulations and revised the law. His reforms fa=
vored the merchants at the expense of the aristocrats. For example, wealth, =
rather than birth, became the major requirement for high public office. Solo=
n also set up the Council of 400, which was open to wealthy merchants as wel=
l as aristocrats. The Council drafted measures that went to the Assembly for=
approval.
Solon also introduced reforms that were popular among the common people. He=
canceled all debts and freed debtors from slavery. He placed limits on land=
ownership and gave small landowners the right to vote in the Assembly. Final=
ly, citizenship was extended to merchants and artisans who were not born Ath=
enians.
After Solon left office, Athens was plunged into turmoil. During this time,=
the aristocrats, farmers, merchants, and artisans quarreled over Solon's re=
forms. The aristocrats thought that Solon had gone too far, while the farmer=
s thought he had not gone far enough. The merchants and artisans, however, b=
elieved that Solon had wisely followed a moderate course. Peisistratus About=
560 B.C. the government of Athens was taken over by the tyrant Peisistratus=
. Although a wealthy man, Peisistratus won the support of the farmers and th=
e other lower classes. He pushed reforms in a more radical direction. Large =
estates were divided among the landless peasants. The poor were given loans,=
and jobs on large public works projects. Peisistratus also promoted trade, =
craft production, and colonial expansion. At the same time, he maintained pe=
ace with Athens's Greek neighbors.
Reformers after Peisistratus continued to reduce the powers of the nobles a=
nd expand the participation of the common people in the
government. They introduced the practice of ostracism, by which the people =
voted to exile undesirable politicians for ten years. They also enlarged the=
membership of the Council to 500. Representation on the Council was determi=
ned by residence in geographic districts, rather than by wealth or birth. Th=
e Athenian army was reorganized, and its generals were elected by the people=
. By 500 B.C. Athens had taken major steps toward democracy.
Sparta
The development of Sparta contrasted greatly with that of Athens. Sparta wa=
s the most important city-state in the Peloponnesus, a peninsula of southern=
Greece. It was located in a fertile valley with a mild climate, adequate wa=
ter, and rich soil. As a result, Sparta's economy was based on agriculture. =
Although the Spartans sought new wealth, they avoided trade and did not esta=
blish many overseas colonies. Instead they invaded neighboring areas, added =
to their farmlands, and enslaved the local people.
Population The population n of Sparta was divided into th=
ree groups. The first group was the Spartans themselves. Descended from the =
Dorians, the Spartans made up only 10 percent of the population. In spite of=
their small numbers, they were the ruling class. Male Spartans had full equ=
ality among themselves and were the only ones who could be citizens. The sec=
ond group was the perioeci, made up of merchants, artisans, and farmers from=
the conquered communities. Although they were free, the perioeci had few po=
litical rights. The third group was the helots, or slaves, who worked the la=
nd for the Spartans. The helots made up about 60 percent of the population o=
f Sparta.
Government Sparta was officially governed by two kings who ruled jointly. T=
he kings, however, had little power. Their only tasks were to lead the army =
and conduct religious services. An assembly, made up of all citizens over th=
e age of 30, passed laws and decided questions of war and peace. Each year t=
he Assembly chose five overseers, known as ephors, to manage public affairs.=
A senate assisted the ephors. It was made up of men over 60, who were chose=
n to serve for life. The Senate proposed laws to the Assembly and served as =
a supreme court.
Social Life The Spartans feared rebellion by the conquered peoples. After a=
n unsuccessful revolt in the 600'S B.C., they placed secret agents among the=
helots and perioeci to report on any plots against the polis. To maintain o=
rder, male Spartans were organized into a permanent army and soon became kno=
wn as the toughest soldiers in the Greek world. Since the helots did all the=
work on the land, the Spartans were free to devote themselves to full-time =
military training.
Life in Sparta revolved around the army and military values. Ephors examine=
d all newborn infants to see if they were healthy. If they were, they were a=
llowed to live. If they were not, they were left on a hillside to die. At th=
e age of seven, boys were taken from their homes and trained for military se=
rvice. They lived in military camps under strict discipline. The goals of th=
eir training were physical strength, endurance, fighting skills, and loyalty=
. At 20, young men became citizen-soldiers and were sent to frontier areas. =
At 30, they were expected to marry but they
could not have a household of their own. They had to live and eat in milita=
ry barracks, where they shared expenses with other soldiers. They could reti=
re from the army when they reached age 60.
Spartan women had more freedom than the women of other Greek city-states. T=
hey mixed freely with their husbands' friends and enjoyed sports like wrestl=
ing, boxing, and racing. They were trained to run their own households and t=
o raise healthy and strong children. When Spartan women sent their men into =
battle, they told them to return either as victors carrying their shields or=
as dead men on their shields.
As Sparta became more militaristic, its people became known for their extre=
me simplicity and distaste for luxury. Spartans shunned the arts and intelle=
ctual activities. They were suspicious of any new ideas or practices that wo=
uld bring changes to their society. For example, they used heavy iron bars i=
nstead of coins as currency. In this way, Spartans hoped to discourage trade=
and to maintain their traditional self-reliance. While other Greek city-sta=
tes improved their production, trade, and standards of living, Sparta remain=
ed a poor agricultural society. that depended on the labor of slaves.
3 Wars and Expansion
The developing Greek city-states faced a growing threat from the Persian Em=
pire. At this time, the Persians were the strongest military power in the wo=
rld. In 546 B.C. Persian armies conquered the Greek city-states in Ionia. Th=
e Ionians disliked their conquerors and were restless under Persian rule.
Persian Wars
In 499 B.C. the Ionians revolted against the Persians. They were supported =
in their rebellion by Athens and other cities on the Greek mainland. The Ath=
enian fleet arrived in Asia Minor, and the Athenian army burned Sardis, the =
Persian headquarters in the area. Four years later, the Persians counteratta=
cked and burned the Ionian city of Miletus. The men of Miletus were killed, =
and the women and children were taken to Persia as slaves.
Marathon After putting down the Ionian rebellion, King Da=
rius I of Persia realized that his victory would not be complete as long as =
Athens and the other Greek city-states continued to aid the Ionians. In 490 =
B.C. he sent an army and a fleet across the Aegean Sea to attack the Greek c=
ity-states. The Athenians hurriedly prepared
for defense. They sent Philippides, a long-distance runner, to Sparta to as=
k for that city's help. Philippides covered the 140 miles (224 kilometers) i=
n less than 48 hours. The Spartans, who were celebrating a religious festiva=
l, did not help immediately. Except for the aid of several small towns, Athe=
ns had to face the Persians alone.
The Athenians and the Persians met at Marathon, a seaside plain 26 miles (4=
1.6 kilometers) north of Athens. There, the smaller Athenian force decisivel=
y defeated the larger Persian army. According, to legend, the Athenians sent=
a runner to carry news of the victory to Athens. The runner reached the ago=
ra of the city and cried out "Nike!," the Greek word for victory. =
Then, he fell to the ground, dead of exhaustion.'
The Athenian triumph at Marathon gave the Greeks more time to organize thei=
r forces. Athens gained enormous prestige from this victory, and was soon re=
cognized as a rival to Sparta.
Salamis
After Marathon, the Persians left Greece, but they did not stay away for lo=
ng.
Xerxes, Darius I's son and successor, was determined to avenge the defeat a=
nd punish the Greeks. The Greeks were aware of the Persian threat and worked=
to increase their military strength. Athens built a new fleet and became th=
e strongest sea power among the city-states. Sparta developed the strongest =
army.
In 480 B.C. Xerxes assembled an army of 100,000 Persian soldiers. The soldi=
ers moved along the northern Aegean shore while the fleet, numbering about 3=
,000 ships, sailed along, the coast. When the Persians entered Greece, Xerxe=
s sent messengers to demand the surrender of the Greek city-states. Many of =
the weaker city-states were frightened by the Persian invasion and declared =
their neutrality. But Athens and Sparta, along with their allies, banded tog=
ether to defend their territories.
At first the Greeks suffered many setbacks . As the Persian forces moved st=
eadily southward toward Athens, a Spartan-led Greek force tried to delay the=
m by holding a narrow mountain pass at Thermopylae. After a heroic defense, =
all the Greeks at Thermopylae were killed and the Persians broke through. Xe=
rxes and his forces captured Athens, now a deserted city, and burned its acr=
opolis.
Although Athens was destroyed, the Greeks continued to fight the war. A Gre=
ek fleet, mostly Athenian, met the Persian fleet at the Bay of Salamis. Ther=
e, the Persians were defeated in one of the great naval battles of history. =
After the battle at Salamis, the fighting turned in favor of the Greeks. Gr=
eek armies defeated the Persians in several important battles, and the Persi=
an forces retreated from the Greek mainland. As a result of their triumph, t=
he Greeks gained security and a new pride and self-confidence, which enabled=
them to advance their civilization.
Golden Age of Athens
After the departure of the Persians, the people of Athens quickly rebuilt t=
he city and reorganized its government. They further reduced the power of th=
e aristocrats. At the same time, a new officer called a strategos, or genera=
l, emerged. The strategos, elected by male citizens, became the most importa=
nt Athenian official.
Athens organized a defensive alliance with the other Greek city-states. The=
alliance aimed to free the Ionian city-states that were still under Persian=
rule, and to ward off any future Persian invasions. Athens provided most of=
the land and naval forces. The other city-states had to furnish money and s=
hips. The treasury of the alliance was kept at the Aegean island of Delos. B=
ecause of the important role of Delos, the alliance became known as the Deli=
an League. As head of the Delian League, Athens became strong and influentia=
l.
Pericles
In 461 B.C. a young aristocrat named Pericles was elected strategos. With t=
he exception of the year 444 B.C., he was reelected annually until his death=
in 429 B.C. While in power, Pericles carried out a large public works progr=
am to make Athens the most beautiful city-state in Greece.
The government of Athens did not have planned budgets, and the Assembly app=
roved building expenditures without providing -funds. As a result, Pericles =
had to tap private sources of wealth. First, he forced the rich to make gene=
rous, "donations"' to the city. Later, he moved the treasury of th=
e Delian League to Athens. The money contributed to the treasury by Athens' =
allies was then used to improve the city. Pericles justified this policy on =
the ground. that the allies were paying Athens for protection.
Although the allies complained, the people of Athens supported Pericles, wh=
o was able to provide them with jobs and money.
Athenian Democracy
Pericles favored the extension of democracy in Athens. He increased the num=
ber of government officials and provided pay for their services. This reform=
made it p ossible for even the poorest citizen to hold public office. Soon =
about one-third of Athenian citizens were involved in government work. Many =
wealthy Athenians saw democracy as a threat and attacked Pericles' reform. T=
hey claimed that it would bankrupt the city and encourage laziness. In a fam=
ous address, recorded by the historian Thucydides, Pericles defended the ide=
als of Athenian democracy:
Our constitution is called a democracy because power is in the hands not of=
a minority but of the whole people. When it is a question of settling priva=
te disputes, everyone is equal before the law; when it is a question of putt=
ing one man before another in positions of public responsibility, what count=
s is not membership of a particular class, but the actual ability which the =
man possesses. No one, so long as he has it in him to be of service to the s=
tate is kept in political
obscurity because of poverty .... *
There were still limits, however, to Athenian democracy. All male citizens =
could take part in the government, and many of them exercised this right. Ye=
t other Athenians could not participate in political life. Women were acknow=
ledged as citizens, but still could not vote or hold office. Metics and slav=
es continued to be refused citizenship, and could not participate in governm=
ent. Nonetheless, politics at this time was more advanced in Athens than any=
where else in the world. In spite of its limitations, ancient Athens contrib=
uted much to the western concept of democratic government.
Peloponnesian Wars
In foreign, relations, Pericles favored peace with Persia and with Athenss =
Greek neighbors. As Athens gained more power and prestige, he also worked to=
extend trade and shipping. As a result of Pericles' policies, the Delian Le=
ague was gradually transformed into an Athenian empire.
Many member city-states, however, became dissatisfied with Athenian control=
of the League. Some tried to leave it, but they were treated as rebels and =
punished. Sparta, Corinth, and other city-states outside the League grew ala=
rmed at the rise of Athens. Led by Sparta, they formed an alliance known as =
the Peloponnesian League.
A struggle for power soon developed between Athens and Sparta. In 431 B.C. =
tensions led to a series of conflicts known as the Peloponnesian Wars. At th=
e beginning of the fighting, Pericles planned Athenian strategy. To avoid a =
direct battle with the well-trained Spartan troops, he moved the rural popul=
ation of Athens behind the city walls. In addition, he ordered the Athenian =
navy to attack the Spartan coast and to keep the sea-lanes open for supplies=
.
The first year of war passed without a clear outcome. Since Sparta had no n=
avy, the Athenians expected to hold out indefinitely. But in the second year=
, a plague broke out in Athens. It killed about one-third of the population.=
One of those who died was Pericles. Following his death, Athens was governe=
d by weak leaders. They made peace with Sparta in 424 B.C., but war broke ou=
t five years later. In 405 B.C., during this second phase of the Peloponnesi=
an Wars, Athens was defeated by Sparta.
The Peloponnesian Wars brought disaster all the Greeks, both victors and va=
nquished. Many city-states declined in population, unemployment became wides=
pread, and prices rose sharply. Sparta fell from its top position, and there=
was no powerful city-state to take its place. As a result, fighting broke o=
ut once more among the city-states. This warfare wasted their resources and =
endangered their freedom.
Rise of Macedonia
While the Greek city-states were fighting each other, people known as the M=
acedonians were building a strong kingdom north of Greece. The Macedonians, =
like the Greeks, were a mixture of
Indo-European groups
The Macedonian language contained many Greek words and expressions. The Gre=
eks, however, thought of the Macedonians as "'backward," and refus=
ed to accept them as true Greeks.
Philip II, the Macedonian king, admired Greek culture and wanted to make Ma=
cedonia the leading power in Greece. During his youth, he had been a hostage=
in Thebes, a Greek city-state. While imprisoned, he had learned a great dea=
l about Greek political affairs and war tactics. As king, he used this knowl=
edge to organize his troops and train an excellent cavalry. In a short time,=
Philip unified Macedonia and conquered the northern Greek city-states.
The Greek city-states farther south relied on Philip's support to fight eac=
h other. By prolonging their battles, Philip weakened his Greek opponents. I=
n 339 B.C. he defeated them at the Battle of Chaeronea. After this vic=
tory, Philip, as ruler of Greece, announced that he would lead the Greeks in=
a war against Persia. However, before he could carry out his plans, Philip =
was murdered. His son Alexander became king.
Indo-European groups.
The Macedonian language contained many Greek words and expressions. The Gre=
eks, however, thought of the Macedonians as "backward," and refuse=
d to accept them as true Greeks.
Philip II, the Macedonian king, admired Greek culture and wanted to make Ma=
cedonia the leading power in Greece. During his youth, he had been a hostage=
in Thebes, a Greek city-state . While imprisoned, he had learned a great de=
al about Greek political affairs and war tactics. As king, he used this know=
ledge to organize his troops and train an excellent cavalry. In a short time=
, Philip unified Macedonia and conquered the northern Greek city-states.
The Greek city-states farther south relied on Philip's support to fight eac=
h other. By prolong
ing their battles, Philip weakened his Greek opponents. In 339 B.C. he defe=
ated them at the Battle of Chaeronea. After this victory, Philip, as ruler o=
f Greece, announced that he would lead the Greeks in a war against Persia. H=
owever, before he could carry out his plans, Philip was murdered. His son Al=
exander became king.
Alexander the Great
Alexander was only 20 when he became the ruler of Macedonia and Greece. He =
was handsome, strong, intelligent, and very ambitious. A
commander of the Macedonian army since he was 16, Alexander was highly resp=
ected by both his Macedonian and Greek soldiers. By 334 B.C. Alexander"=
s troops were ready to invade the Persian Empire. With 35,000 soldiers, Alex=
ander crossed the Hellespont, a narrow body of water separating Asia and Eur=
ope. This act was the first step in the creation of a new empire.
Early Conquests
Alexander had his first major encounter with the Persians at the Granicus R=
iver in western Asia Minor. He led his cavalry through the shallow water and=
up the riverbank to the enemy's ranks. Foot soldiers follow, ed to win a de=
cisive victory. After this triumph, Alexander sent 300 coats of Persian armo=
r to Athens as a thanksgiving offering to the goddess Athena.
Alexander then marched along the coast of Asia Minor, freeing Greek city-st=
ates from Persian rule. Meanwhile, Darius III, the Persian king, gathered a =
large army to stop Alexander's advance. The Greeks and Persians finally met =
at Issus in Syria. Alexander's superb tactics once
again resulted in a Greek victory. Darius III fled to Persia, but his mothe=
r, wife, and daughters were captured by Alexander, who treated them with res=
pect.
Instead of pursuing Darius, Alexander and his troops moved south along the =
Mediterranean coast. They captured the seaports of Phoenicia and cut off the=
Persian fleet from its main supply bases. After a long siege, the port city=
of Tyre was captured, and the entire Persian fleet surrendered to Alexander=
.
Late in 332 B.C., Alexander reac e gyp e Egyptians, discontented under Pers=
ian rule, welcomed Alexander and declare im a pharaoh. In Egypt, Alexander e=
stablished a new city and named it Alexandria after himself. Alexandria soon=
became the leading port on the Mediterranean and a major center of civiliza=
tion in the ancient world.
Final Campaigns
In 331 B.C. Alexander entered Mesopotamia. He met Darius and a large Persia=
n army east of the Tigris River near Arbela. The Persian army included infan=
try, elephants, and chariots with knives extending from the wheels. It was n=
o match for Alexander's forces, however, who won a great victory. Alexander =
then captured the key cities of the Persian Empire: Babylon, Susa, and Perse=
polis. His soldiers destroyed the royal palaces and seized the great treasur=
es of gold and silver in these cities. When it was learned that Darius had b=
een killed by one of his generals, Alexander declared himself king of Persia=
.
After the defeat of Persia, many Greek soldiers were tired of fighting and =
wanted no more conquests. Alexander allowed them to return
home. But the Macedonian troops remained with him. In 327 B.C. Alexander le=
d them east to India. During three years of fighting, he conquered lands in =
central Asia and the Indus River Valley. Alexander hoped to go farther into =
India, but his army refused. He finally returned to Babylon, which he planne=
d to make the capital of his empire.
Alexander's Empire
In his conquests, Alexander acquired much of the civilized world. His empir=
e stretched from western Greece to northern India. It covered more than 11,0=
00 miles (17,600 kilometers).
Goals
Alexander hoped to create a strong government for the empire that would per=
manently unite Europe and Asia. He wanted to combine the best of eastern and=
western cultures into one civilization. Alexander personally tried to promo=
te these goals. He wore eastern dress and imitated the court life of Persian=
kings. He married a Persian woman and also ordered thousands of his soldier=
s to marry Persian women.
Alexander spread Greek culture throughout the Middle East. He brought botan=
ists,, geographers, historians, surveyors, and architects with him on his co=
nquests. Soon Greek settlements were founded throughout the Asian parts of t=
he empire.
Alexander, however, did not live long enough to fully realize his goals. In=
323 B.C., he died of T fever in Babylon at the age of 33. In spite of his s=
hort life, Alexander had become a legendary figure and was known as "'t=
he Great." His military accomplishments were remembered and admired by =
succeeding generations.
Divided Empire
Following Alexander's death, his generals divided his vast empire into thre=
e domains. Seleucus, a cavalry officer, ruled the Asian provinces and founde=
d the Seleucid dynasty. The Seleucids built many cities, the most famous of =
which was the capital Antioch in Syria. By the 100'S B.C. the Seleucids had =
lost most of their provinces. Syria, however, remained their stronghold unti=
l the coming of the Romans in the next century.
Another general, Ptolemy, ruled Egypt and made Alexandria his capital. He a=
nd his successors governed with the absolute power of the ancient pharaohs. =
They claimed divinity and owned all the land. They fought frequent wars with=
the Seleucids. The most famous Ptolemaic ruler was Queen Cleopatra, who los=
t her kingdom to the Romans in 30 B.C.
Macedonia and Greece made up the third domain of Alexander's empire. At fir=
st, the entire region was ruled by the general, Antigonus. But within a shor=
t time, the Greek city-states declared their independence and began fighting=
with each other. The successors of Antigonus continued to rule Macedonia. T=
hey sometimes intervened in Greek affairs to settle disputes among the city-=
states. Finally, in the 100'S B.C. Macedonia and Greece were defeated by Rom=
e and absorbed into the Roman Empire.
Greek Civilization
During the 400'S B.C. Athens became the chief center of Greek civilization.=
Its thinkers, writers, artists, and builders set standards that were admire=
d and copied by other Greek city-states.
Art and Architecture
After the Persian Wars, the people of Athens rebuilt their city. Under the =
rule of Pericles, they turned their acropolis into an architectural treasure=
. On the summit of the acropolis, builders erected magnificent temples and p=
alaces. These buildings were known for their rows of marble columns, beautif=
ul statues, and harmonious geometric designs. Some of them still stand today=
. They include the Propylaea, or the gateway to the Acropolis, and the Erect=
heum, a temple to two noted Athenian goddesses. But the most splendid piece =
of architecture that has survived is the Parthenon, the temple of the goddes=
s Athena. Built in 14 years, the Parthenon measures 230 feet (69 meters) by =
100 feet (30 meters) and is 65 feet (19.5 meters) tall.
The Athenians also excelled in sculpture and painting. Sculptors showed an =
interest in the beauty of the human body. They carved monumental figures wit=
h amazing skill and simplicity.
Beautiful pottery was also produced. On elegantly-shaped vases, painters ma=
de graceful designs and portrayed scenes of daily life.
Drama
The Greeks were the first to write and perform plays. Most of their dramati=
c productions appeared in poetic form during the 400'S B.C. The earliest one=
s were tragedies, or stories about human suffering that often had unhappy en=
dings. Based on ancient legends, they presented various moral and philosophi=
cal issues.
Aeschylus
The first great tragedian, or writer of tragedies, was Aeschylus (525-456 B=
.C.). He wrote more than 70 plays, of which only seven have survived. In his=
tragedies, Aeschylus looked at the relationships of gods and people as well=
as the conflicts that emerge in human society. His most famous work is a tr=
ilogy, or set of three plays, called the Oresteia. The Oresteia traces a ser=
ies of violent and tragic events in the family of the legendary king Agamemn=
on. In the end, the plays show that punishment for wrongdoing should be deci=
ded by the law of the community rather than by personal revenge.
Sophocles
Sophocles (496-406 B.C.) was the next great tragedian. He served as a gener=
al in the Athenian army and lived through the tragic
years of the Peloponnesian Wars. In his works, Sophocles examined human pri=
de and guilt. His most famous play, Oedipus Rex, deals with the plight of Oe=
dipus, a king who unknowingly kills his father and marries his mother. Oedip=
us uses all his po wers to solve the crime, only to discover that he i=
s the murderer. Another play, Antigone,
relates the story of a young woman who chooses to obey her conscience and a=
ccept suffering rather than follow the orders of her uncle.
Although Sophocles showed the limitations of human nature in his works, he =
also revealecd human compassion and courage.
Euripides
Euripides (484-406 B.C.) was the last of the great Greek tragedians. In his=
works, he supported Athenian democracy and criticized long-standing beliefs=
and practices. He was also sensitive to the plight of women. In his play Th=
e Alcestis, a husband allows his wife to die in order to save his own life. =
After her death, he suffers remorse for his foolish decision. Another play, =
The Trojan Women, describes the horrors of the Trojan War. It portrays the c=
ruelty of Greek soldiers toward the women of Troy whom they have captured. B=
ecause of their frank treatment of issues, the pla ys of Euripides shocked m=
any Athenians. As result, Euripides was an unpopular figure during his lifet=
ime.
Comedy
The Greeks also developed a second type of play known as a comedy, or a pla=
y with a humorous theme and a happy ending. Comedies reflected everyday life=
and were popular among the common people. The most famous comedian, or ' wr=
iter of comedies, was Aristophanes (448-380 B.C.). In his works, Aristophane=
s made witty comments about the leading figures and issues of his day. For e=
xample, in the comedy The Clouds, Socrates is shown as a lofty thinker who a=
ppears in a basket floating in midair.
Education and Sports
The Greeks believed that people should strive for excellence in developing =
their minds and bodies. They emphasized the importance of a well-rounded edu=
cation.
Learning
Beginning in the 400=B9s B. C., the sons of citizens were able to receive som=
e form of
schooling. At the age of seven, they began their education at private schoo=
ls. There they learned such subjects as music, reading, writing, and
poetry. After four years, boys from poorer families left school and learned=
a trade. Those from wealthy backgrounds continued their edu-
cation under tutors called sophists. They learned geometry, astronomy, and =
rhetoric, or public speaking. Tutors and the more advanced stu-
dents also discussed ethical, political, and philosophical questions.
Sports
The Greeks believed that "a sound mind is in a sound body." Thus,=
they gave an important place to gymnastics and sporting activities. Because=
of their interest in physical fitness, the Greeks were the first people to =
develop organized athletic competitions.
The most famous sporting events in ancient Greece were the Olympic Games. B=
egun in 776 B.C., they were held every four years at Olympia in honor of the=
god Zeus. All trading and fighting stopped during the Olympics. The Olympic=
s were so important that the Greeks measured time by the four-year intervals=
between the games. Each interval was called an olympiad.
Athletes from all over the Greek world came to compete in the games. Only m=
ale athletes, however, were allowed to take part. Women could not compete in=
, or even watch, the games. About 40,000 spectators sat on grassy slopes ove=
rlooking the field area. Olympic competition at first consisted of only a fo=
otrace. Later it grew into several athletic events. '
Olympic winners were regarded as heroes. At the games, they received crowns=
made from olive leaves. They were held in high esteem by their city-states.=
Statues were built in their honor, and parades were held. Some city-states =
even excused great athletes from paying taxes.
Greek Thought
The 400's and 300'S B.C. saw the flowering of Greek thought in Athens. Duri=
ng this period, a number of important thinkers developed and organized ideas=
that have since formed the intellectual heritage of western civilization. <=
BR>
Socrates
Greek philosophers believed that through a process of logical thinking, peo=
ple could discover wisdom, truth, and the laws of nature. Socrates, an Athen=
ian from a poor family, was the first of the great philosophers. Born in 470=
B.C., he gave up his craft as a sculptor and devoted his time to teaching. =
To instruct his students, Socrates developed a teaching technique later call=
ed the Socratic method. In using this method, , ' he would ask students poin=
ted questions without giving them answers. Then he would oppose the students=
' answers with logical arguments. As a result, the students would be forced =
to defend their statements. In this way Socrates hoped that his students wou=
ld begin to think for themselves. They would be able to clear away mistaken =
ideas and discover eternal truths.
Because of his sincerity and sharp intellect, Socrates gained many follower=
s. However, prominent Athenians viewed his teachings as a threat to the city=
. In 399 B.C. they accused him of corrupting the young people and plotting t=
o overthrow the government. A jury of 500 citizens tried Socrates and senten=
ced him to death. Declaring his innocence and faithful to his ideas, Socrate=
s carried out the sentence himself. He drank poisonous hemlock juice and die=
d among his grieving followers.
Plato
Socrates' work was carried on by his pupil Plato (427-347 B.C.). Born an At=
henian aristocrat, Plato thought about entering politics. Instead, he became=
a teacher and opened a school called the Academy. During his teaching, Plat=
o took the ideas of Socrates and organized them into the first system of phi=
losophical thought.
Plato also carried out the earliest studies in political science. In his wo=
rk The Republic, he presented a plan for what he thought would be the ideal =
society and government. Unlike many Athenians, Plato disliked democracy, cla=
iming that it allowed people too much freedom.' He distrusted the lower clas=
ses and wanted only the most intelligent and well-educated citizens to parti=
cipate in government. In addition, Plato gave more importance to the state t=
han to the individual. He believed that each person should place service to =
the community above strictly personal goals.
Aristotle
The last great philosopher of ancient Greece was Aristotle (384-322 B.C.). =
A pupil of Plato, and later a tutor of Alexander the Great, Aristotle opened=
a school in Athens called the Lyceum. At this school, he made important con=
tributions to the field of logic. Aristotle's work in logic gave western thi=
nkers an important intellectual tool for exploring knowledge in any area.
Aristotle also closely observed the natural world and wrote about his findi=
ngs. He made studies in biology, political science, physics, drama, and othe=
r fields. Because of his wide range of knowledge, Aristotle was later called=
" the master of them that know." His writings became intellectual=
classics.
Historians
The Greeks used their intellectual skills in the writing of history. Herodo=
tus, known as the Father of History (484-425 B.C.), was the first Greek hist=
orian. He wrote about the Persian Wars and arranged his material with great =
artistry. Although he sometimes failed to separate history from legend, Hero=
dotus passed on important information about the events and customs of his da=
y to later historians.
Greek Drama p. 73
1. Identify: Miletus, Marathon, Salamis, Xerxes, Thermopy=
lae, Delian League, Pericles, Peloponnesian League, Macedonia, Philip II, Al=
exander the Great, Hellespont, Darius III, Issus, Alexandria, Seleucus, Anti=
och, Ptolemy, Cleopatra, Antigonus.
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