FIVE THEORIES OF EDUCATION
1. BEHAVIORISM
“LEARNING IS THE ACQUISITION OF NEW BEHAVIOR THROUGH CONDITIONING”
Theory developed by Watson and Skinner which helds three true basic assumptions such as:
a. The learning provokes a change in behavior.
b. The environment shapes behavior.
c. The principles of contiguity and reinforcement are the center to explain the learning process. (Contiguity means how close in time two events must for a bond to be performed and Reinforcement means the repetition of events).
The conditioning can be of two types:
A. Classical conditioning: The behavior is the result of a reflex response to stimulus as in the studies of Pavlov´s dogs.
B. Operant conditioning: The behavior is reinforced by rewarding or punishing an action as the studies developed by B.F Skinner and his Radical Behaviorism theory.
The behaviorism can be rewarding for both students and teachers. Students work for things that make them successful and build positive feelings and attitudes. Additionally, they change behavior to satisfy the need of giving a value to what they´ve learned.
But the balance is important when applying rewarding or punishment because too much of each one of them could mark student´s behavior. It is important for the learner but in some way
http://www.educationatlas.com/behaviorism.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)#Behaviorism
http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Behaviorism
http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Behaviorism#What_is_Behaviorism.3F

2. CONGNITIVISM: “CHILDREN DO NOT IMITATE ALL BEHAVIOR THAT HAS BEEN REINFORCED”
Jean Piaget is one of the major theorists of the cognitivism. The theory has its bases on the quantity of learning implies associations established by contiguity and repetition. Cognitive theorist also view the learning process as the involvement of acquisition, organization and reorganization of cognitive structures that human beings get by processing and storing information.
This theory involves many concepts that are going to be mentioned in general, like:
a. Schema: Internal knowledge structure. New information is compared and accommodated to create a new knowledge or information.
b. Three-Stage Information Processing Model: Sensory Register, Short-Term and Long-Term Memory.
c. Meaninful , Serial, Practice, Transfer, Organization, Level of processing, State Dependent, Mnemonic, and Advance Organizer Effects
The acquaintance of knowledge is based on a bank of information which is gotten, organized and stored in order to receive more of it in order to analyze it, compared it and used it to create new ways of thinking and to enrich the infinite capacity each human being has to attach information. Teaching is based on that.
http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#The%20Basics%20of%20Cognitivism
3. CONSTRUCTIVISM: “LEARNERS CONSTRUC THEIR OWN REALITY BASED UPON THEIR EXPERIENCES OF PERCEPTIONS”
Bartlett pioneered what is called the constructivist approach that is also known as Social Constructivism. It has some variations:
a. Active learning
b. Discovery learning
c. Knowledge building
Constructivists believe that learning is based on real lived experiences. The knowledge is gotten by interpretation of physical or social events and beliefs. There are two kinds of Construction:
a. Realistic: the learning is constructed on external structures of the environment.
b. Radical constructivism: the learning is gotten by knowledge which is organized based on the personal world experiences.

The learning based on this theory is seen from different perspectives because each one´s experiences have been different and it has given them the personal interpretation of events. These differences are the ones to help grew conceptual frames by negotiation of meaning, sharing from multiple perspective and internal changes through cooperative learning. But it cannot be taken just by getting the information, but the setting of realistic situations.
http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#The%20Basics%20of%20Cognitivism
4. CONNECTIVISM ( or Learning Theory): “ A LEARNING THEORY FOR THE DIGITAL AGE”
This theory was developed by George Siemens based on his analysis of the limitations of the three theories described above: behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism to explain the effect of the technology in our lifestyle, communication and the way we learn
Connectivism is the use of a network with nodes and connections as the metaphorical figure for learning. In this figure the node represents anything that can be connected to another node: information, data, feelings, images. The creation of the connections and development of a network represents the process of learning. It is important to emphasize that not all connections are of equal strength, many connections can be weak
The Connectivism in E-Learning: It is said that the connectivism is the most appropriate theory for online learning because the world has changed an become more networked, thing makes this theory more relevant. As other theories, the connectivism is established on the following principles:
a. Learning and knowledge rests in diversity of opinions.
b. Learning is a process of connecting special nodes or sources of information.
c. Learning may reside in non-human appliances
d. Capacity to know what is more critical and what is currently known.
e. Maintenance of connections is needed to facilitate continuous learning.
f. Update the knowledge.
g. Decision making is a learning process.
In these times the Connectivism is seen as a Learning Theory and not as “pedagogical view” because the need of technology in the acquaintance of information and congnitivism of knowledge.
Personally, the attention to a theory like this is of high importance. From the point of view of the teacher, technology is one of the best tools to motivate the students in what they are learning and to help them to be able to collect, organize and analyze the information. One of the things I consider not much safe is to know that the information can be gotten from a non secure source or not even from a human.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectivism_(learning_theory)#column-one
5. ANDRAGOGICAL LEARNING THEORY (or Adult Education): “THERE IS A DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PEDAGOGICAL LEARNING AND ANDRAGOGICAL LEARNING”.
Andragogy means “man-leading”. It is the process of engaging adult learners in the learning experience.
This is a new theory was originally used by Alexander Clapp in 1833 and developed by Malcolm Knowles in 1990, in the context of adult learners which contrasts with the well known children´s learning methods or pedagogical learning. In the andragogical learning the role of the instructor or facilitator is minimized and it assumed that if something do not work well it is not the instructor failure.
The central purpose of this theory in the context of adult education is that ONLY after convincing oneself on the rationalism of learning each one decide to learn. Adults cannot be treated like children. However, two of the best activities adult students can develop to enable a learning environment are the workshops and seminars.
Four postulate Knowles has stated are:
a. Adults need to be involved in planning and evaluation= Self-Concept and Motivation to learn.
b. Experience provides basis for learning activities. (it includes mistakes)
c. Readiness to learn= Aduls are more interested in learning subjects that are relevant for their jobs and personal situations.
d. Orientation to learning= the problem for adult learning is the content-oriented.
In my personal case, I work with adults in the area of English Teaching. The activities mentioned before are part of the higher levels, but when teaching beginners, adults are like children who need guidance, support, extra help when developing tasks.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andragogical_learning_theory
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andragogy

Written by Leticia Cantoral/ Carné: 6076972066

I wrote my comment in two parts beacuse the space was not enough.
Letty

1. Engagement Theory:
Authors: Greg Kearsley & Ben Shneiderman
They developed this theory from own experiences teaching in electronic and distances education environments.
Characteristics:
1. Occur in a group context
2. A Project-based
3. Meaningful for someone outside the classroom
Orientation:
• Students are meaningful engaged in learning activities.
• Make possible students interactions with others.
Application in the teaching learning process
The teacher can serve as the student-client inference and must ensure that expectations are realistic for student projects completed in an academic context.
2. The Andragogy theory
Author: Malcolm Knowles (1913 - 1997)
He was a professor of adult education for almost twenty years and director of the Adult Education Association in the United States during eight years. He became a theorist and promoter of adult education and developed the Andragogy theory specifically for adult learning.
Characteristics:
1. Needs assessment
2. Safety in the environment and the process
3. Careful attention to sequence of content and reinforcement
4. Praxis (It means reflecting on what has been accomplished)
5. Respect for learners as subjects of their own learning (allowing adults make their own decisions.
Orientation:
• To know why they need to learn something
• To learn experientially
• Adults approach learning as problem-solving
• Adults learn best when the topic is of immediate value.
Application in the teaching learning process
Example: Applying Andragogy principles to the design of personal computer training:
1. to explain why specific things are being taught (commands, functions, and operations)
2. to Instruct using task-oriented instead of memorization
3. to take into account different backgrounds of learners; learning materials and activities before experiencing with computers
4. to provide guidance for adults to discover things for themselves
3. The symbol systems theory
Author: Gavriel Salomon (1938)
He was an Israeli educational psychologist who conducted a research on cognition and instruction, and developed the symbol systems to explain the effects of media on learning.
Characteristics:
1. The symbolic coding elements require different mental transformations.
2. The level of individuals´ knowledge will affect the impact of specific media sequences.
3. The social context of media presentations can influence what message is perceived.
4. There is influence between media and learner
Orientation:
• To highlight different aspects of content.
• To record
• To code elements
• the kinds of mental processes determines the acquired knowledge
Application in the teaching learning process
Example:
For effective instructional communication a match is established between the cognitive demands of a learning task, the skills required by the codes and the learner's level of mastery.

--Sara Chinchilla
<mailto:sarah_2133@yahoo.com>

4. Minimalism Theory
Author: J.M. Carroll (1858-1931)
He was a Baptist pastor, leader, historian, and author of the minimalism, which objective was to minimize the amount of explicit instructional materials, and that learning takes place in small steps.
Principles:
1. Allow learners to start immediately on meaningful tasks.
2. Minimize the amount passive forms of training
3. Include error recognition and recovery activities in the instruction
4. Make all learning activities self-contained and independent of sequence.
Orientation:
• All learning tasks should be meaningful and self-contained activities
• To provide realistic projects to learners
• To permit self-directed reasoning and improvising by increasing the number of active learning activities,
Application in the teaching learning process
Example: How to use the processor
The training materials involved a set of 25 cards to replace a 94 page manual.
Each card contains a meaningful task, it included error recognition and recovery information.
The information provided on the cards is not complete, only the key ideas or hints are provided.
In an experiment that compared the use of the cards versus the manual, users learned the task in about half the time with the cards, supporting the effectiveness of the minimalist design.
5. Levels-of-processing Theory
Author: J.M. Carroll (1858-1931)
He was a Baptist pastor, leader, historian, and author of the minimalism, which objective was to minimize the amount of explicit instructional materials, and that learning takes place in small steps.
Characteristics
• Familiarity (preexisting semantic structures)
• Specificity of processing
For example, auditory stimuli have the highest recall value when spoken, and visual stimuli have the highest recall value when a subject is presented with images
• Self-reference effect
• Implicit memory and levels-of-processing
.Orientation:
1. More processing of information means more information retained and remembered.
2. Processing will be automatic unless attention is focused on a particular level
Application in the teaching learning process
Example: Language comprehension
Seven levels are proposed: acoustic, phonology, syntactic, semantic, referential, thematic, and functional. The first levels are transparent and the last one is the conscious interpretation of the sentence. If there is a process of the last three levels depend upon context and will result in comprehension provided there is no ambiguity.

Sources:
http://tip.psychology.org/theories.html
http://www.nl.edu/academics/cas/ace/resources/malcolmknowles.cfm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gavriel_Salomon

Sara Elena Chinchilla
ID 6076-0580


--Sara Chinchilla
<mailto:sarah_2133@yahoo.com>

Five theories of education:

In education, a common definition of learning refers to: The process that brings together cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing, or making changes in one's knowledge, skills, values, and world views. Learning as a process focuses in what happens when the learning takes place. Explanations of what happens are called learning theories. A learning theory is an attempt to describe how people and animals learn, thereby helping us understand the inherently complex process of learning.

Here we can mention the most important theories, based on experiences about learning.

The behaviourist orientation to learning, it means that the inner experiences that were the focus of psychology could not be properly studied as they were not observable. Instead it was turned turned to laboratory experimentation. The result was the generation of the stimulus-response model. In this the environment is seen as providing stimuli to which individuals develop responses.

In essence three key assumptions underpin this view:

Observable behaviour rather than internal thought processes are the focus of study. In particular, learning is manifested by a change in behaviour.
The environment shapes one's behaviour; what one learns is determined by the elements in the environment, not by the individual learner.
The principles of contiguity (how close in time two events must be for a bond to be formed) and reinforcement (any means of increasing the likelihood that an event will be repeated) are central to explaining the learning process. (Merriam and Caffarella 1991: 126)
It means, developed a S-R (stimulus-response) theory of learning. It was noted that those responses (or behaviours) were strengthened or weakened by the consequences of behaviour. This notion was refined by Skinner and is perhaps better known as operant conditioning - reinforcing what you want people to do again; ignoring or punish what you want people to stop doing.
In terms of learning, according to James Hartley (1998) four key principles come to the fore:
Activity is important. Learning is better when the learner is active rather than passive. ('Learning by doing' is to be applauded).
Repetition, generalization and discrimination are important notions. Frequent practice - and practice in varied contexts - is necessary for learning to take place. Skills are not acquired without frequent practice.
Reinforcement is the cardinal motivator. Positive reinforcers like rewards and successes are preferable to negative events like punishments and failures.
Learning is helped when objectives are clear. Those who look to behaviourism in teaching will generally frame their activities by behavioural objectives e.g. 'By the end of this session participants will be able to...'. With this comes a concern with competencies and product approaches to curriculum.

The cognitive orientation to learning

Where behaviourists looked to the environment, those drawing on Gestalt turned to the individual's mental processes. In other words, they were concerned with cognition - the act or process of knowing.

Humanistic orientations to learning

In this orientation the basic concern is for human growth. We look to the work of Maslow and Rogers as expressions of this approach.

In this orientation the basic concern is for the human potential for growth. There was a reaction against ‘scientific’ reductionism – people being treated as objects and rationalism. Instead the affective and subjective world was to be reaffirmed. Personal freedom, choice, motivations and feelings had to have their place. A motive at the lower level is always stronger than those at higher levels. Tennant (1997) summarizes these as follows:
• Level one: Physiological needs such as hunger, thirst, sex, sleep, relaxation and bodily integrity must be satisfied before the next level comes into play.
• Level two: Safety needs call for a predictable and orderly world. If these are not satisfied people will look to organize their worlds to provide for the greatest degree of safety and security. If satisfied, people will come under the force of level three.
• Level three: Love and belonginess needs cause people to seek warm and friendly relationships.
• Level four: Self-esteem needs involve the desire for strength, achievement, adequacy, mastery and competence. They also involve confidence, independence, reputation and prestige.
• Level five: Self-actualization is the full use and expression of talents, capacities and potentialities.
Self actualizers are able to submit to social regulation without losing their own integrity or personal independence; that is they may follow a social norm without their horizons being bounded in the sense that they fail to see or consider other possibilities. They may on occasion transcend the socially prescribed ways of acting. Achieving this level may mean developing to the full stature of which they are capable.

The social/situational orientation to learning

It is not so much that learners acquire structures or models to understand the world, but they participate in frameworks that that have structure. Learning involves participation in a community of practice.
Social learning theory 'posits that people learn from observing other people. Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people ha d to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasion s this coded information serves as a guide for action.

Attending to a behaviour; remembering it as a possible model or paradigm; and playing out how it may work for them in different situations (rehearsal) are key aspects of observational learning.
Symbols retained from a modelling experience act as a template with which one’s actions are compared. During this rehearsal process individuals observe their own behaviour and compare to their cognitive representation of modelled experience. In this model behaviour results from the interaction of the individual with the environment.
This said, the idea of situated learning does provide significant pointers for practice. Here I want to highlight three:
• Learning is in the relationships between people – As McDermott (in Murphy 1999:17) puts it:
• Learning traditionally gets measured as on the assumption that it is a possession of individuals that can be found inside their heads… [Here] learning is in the relationships between people. Learning is in the conditions that bring people together and organize a point of contact that allows for particular pieces of information to take on a relevance; without the points of contact, without the system of relevancies, there is not learning, and there is little memory. Learning does not belong to individual persons, but to the various conversations of which they are a part.
• Educators work so that people can become participants in communities of practice – they need to explore with people in communities how all may participate to the full. There is a strong link here with the long-standing concern among informal educators for association.
• There is an intimate connection between knowledge and activity - Learning is part of daily living. Problem solving and learning from experience become central processes

Sources

http://www.infed.org/biblio/learning-social.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)

Abigail Noj
6076032166

In our times, our teaching should be guided by an understanding of the different theories behing the practice. As it was said before a theory is an explanation of a pattern of behavior that is consistent and reliable. The more a theory is tested, the stronger it will be.

Abigail Noj
6076032166

5 THEORIES OF EDUCATION:
I’m writing about the traditional theories of education so we have a better understanding of the history of education and the different points of view of important people who have had a say in the educational field that is the basis of our career as English Teachers:
• Comenius' View of Education: the ultimate purpose of human life for him was to become united with God and to obtain eternal bliss in life after death, with life here on earth being the preparation for life after death. So, having this purpose in mind, people should:
1. Know all things
2. Become a person who can control things oneself, and
3. Become like the image of God.
He believed that people needed three different kinds of education which were:
1. Intellectual education
2. Moral education
3. Religious education
His theory of education was called Pansaphia
• Rousseau's View of Education: He wrote a novel for educational purposes which was called “Emil”. He believed that education of children had to be developed in a natural way because since every person possesses an inherent natural goodness, their nature should be developed as it exists originally. Education, for him, aims to develop people naturally through eliminating factors that obstruct the development of their natural gifts, such as indoctrination by established culture and by moral and religious teachings.
The purpose of education, for him, was to nurture "natural man".
• Pestalozzi's View of Education: He has the influence of Rousseau. He also said that when people based themselves upon something simple and pure, they come to do good by intuitively apprehending fundamental principles. He believed that education starts from maternal love in the family, and of course he believed that the education that a family has formed the basis of education.
He believed in three fundamental forces that were:
1. Mental power. (mind)
2. Heart power. (heart)
3. Technical power. (hand)
The internal power that made them be one was love.
• Plato's View of Education: he divided the human soul in three parts which were: appetitive, spirited and the rational part. Each of them required a virtue…the one for the appetitive part was temperance, the one for the spirited part was courage, and the last virtue was wisdom. The virtue that manifests itself when these three virtues are harmonized is justice. For Plato, what brings people closer to the world of Ideas is education. Plato's image of an ideal person was that of one who loves wisdom and that of one who is harmonized, that means a person who has a mind and body in harmony, a person who possesses the four virtues of wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice. The purpose of education was to build an ideal nation, where the Idea of the Good is embodied.
• The Christian View of Education in the Middle Ages: The purpose or aim of the Christian society of the Middle Ages educations was to develop people who would live the Christian ideal. So the ideal was to develop a religious person that love and respect God at any time or circumstance. Of course, the way also to show that love was by loving their neighbors. The education during that time was given in monasteries, and the purpose was to attain a perfect spiritual life filled with all kind of virtues like honesty, submission, purity, and some others. The general goal to achieve was to cultivate people to become good and to prepare them in order to deserve a better life after death.
Every one of these theories had its own basis but all of them leaded to a final goal which was to cultivate virtues and values in people of that time and to help people to become better citizens and human beings.
I found this information on the following website:
http://www.tparents.org/Library/Unification/Books/Euth/Euth05-04.htm
Sussan Carranza
Carnet: 6076-05-3184

--SUSSAN CARRANZA
<mailto:sussancarranza@yahoo.com>

It is a concrete definition to say that the teaching-learning process is about the emotional, cognitive and environmental influences and experiences to acquire and share knowledge.

A learning theory attempts to describe how people learn, and it has two main objectives: to provide vocabulary and a conceptual framework for interpreting examples of the process as we live. The other objective is to suggest where to look for solutions to problems.

There exist some theories that are based on this process.
• BEHAVIORISM: It was developed by Skinner. Helped by others, he established that learning is manifested by a change in behavior, the environment shapes behavior, and the contiguity and reinforcement are important to explain the learning process.
• COGNITIVISM: This was presented by Bode. It was based on two assumptions: Memory system is an active organized processor of information and prior knowledge plays an important role in the process.
• CONSTRUCTIVISM: It views learning as a process in which the learner constructs new ideas or concepts based on prior knowledge.
• CONNECTIVISM: it is a recent theory which is focused on learning as making connections trough time and space.
• MULTIMEDIA LEARNING: It is based on the effective use of multimedia in the process.

AUTHOR CONSULTED: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)

--CECILIA BALCARCEL 6076-04-14490
<mailto:cecybalnavy@hotmail.com>

1. CONNECTIVISM This theory was emphasized by Edward Thorndike who did a lot of research based mainly on animals. He created a device called puzzle boxes to study the stimuli-response behavior of the cats. He found out that if the response is a reward, it will be learned. Meanwhile, if the response is not rewarded, the behavior will gradually disappear. With these observations, Thorndike suggested that certain stimuli and responses become connected or dissociated from each other according to his law of effect (the likely recurrence of a response is generally governed by its consequence or effect in form of reward or punishment).
Some contributors to this theory are Dewey, Skinner , and Pavlov. Characteristics:1. previous learning considerations, 2. meaningful experiences, 3. stimuli-response basis. This method can be applied in the teaching-learning process through the connections or relations that the human mind does when acquiring new knowledge.
2. BEHAVIORISM Developed by B.F.Skinner. contributors are Thorndike, Tolman, Guthrie, Pavlov, and Hull. This theory considers that learning is manifested by a change in behavior, the environment shapes behavior, and the principles of contiguity (closed in time events are to be performed) and reinforcement. Learning according to Behaviorism is the acquisition of new behavior through conditioning, which can be Classical conditioning (the behavior is an automatic response to a stimulus. And Operant Conditioning (reinforcement of the behavior by a reward or a punishment).
Characteristics: 1. behavior based theory, 2.operant conditioning, human development through behavior, 3. Environment shapes behavior to produce a change in behavior. This theory is applied in the teaching-learning process, especially in developing hands-free activities as well as moral and spiritual topics extrapolated to real life situations.
3. COGNITIVISM Exponents: Bode and Gestalt psychologists who stressed patterns rather than isolated events. This approach says that the memory system is an active organized processor of information and that prior knowledge plays an important role in learning. Short term memory and long term memory are important features of the cognitive theory. The learning activity lies with the individual.
Characteristics: 1. memory system is an active process of information (storing / processing), 2. Individual centered 3. previous knowledge, 4. brain-based learning, 5. the learner builds new ideas or concepts.
This theory applies to the teaching learning process in a way about scientific approach centered in the learning process itself.
4. CONSTRUCTIVISM This theory considers that learning is a process where the student constructs new ideas or concepts considering prior knowledge. Characteristics: 1. Constructivism includes active learning, discovery learning, and knowledge building, since 2. it promotes the student´s free exploration. 3. Here the teacher is a facilitator. 4. the learner builds up new ideas. 5. students are free to experiment 4. long-term retention. Exponents: Atkinson, Shuffrin, Baddeley.
This theory perfectly applies to every educational field, since the student can explore experiences and environments to acquire new knowledge, based on previous information or experiences. The teacher acts as a mentor allowing the student to construct their own meaningful knowledge.
5. Due to Space, developed in the following comment.

Patricia Albizúres de Quiróz
ID 6076 084077
Source: wikipedia/learning_Theories
--Patricia de Quiróz

5. ANDRAGOGY This theory emerge in 1990. its main exponent was Malcolm Knowles and it was based on adult learners. It is also called Second-Chance Education and there is a wide variety of courses that improves skills or tailor-made courses selected by students. Some characteristics are: 1. the teacher´s role is not emphasized. 2. students are better motivated because what they learn is meaningful for them and the enrollment is voluntary. 3. education process is easier since adults already have experiences baggage.
This is a very useful theory, since a lot of adults continue their education after several years or by stages or periods in their lives. This theory focuses on the students´ needs and requirements. The teacher is also a facilitator who is demanded new knowledge by the student.

Patricia Albizúres de Quiróz ID 6076 08 4077 (Wikipedia://Learning_Theories)

--Patricia de Quiróz

There were many theories, one theory that was most developed by B:F Skinner was Behaviorism . It loosely includes the work of such people as (Thorndike, Tolman, Guthrie and Hull) They focused that learning is manifested by a change in behavior. Second the environment shapes behavior, and third the principles of contiguity (how close in time two events must be for a bond to be performed and reinforced (any means of increasing the likelihood that an event will be repeated.
Another theory was Classical Conditioning, where the behavior becomes a reflex response to stimulus as in the case of Pavlov`s dogs. He was interested in studying reflexes, when he was that the dog drooled without the proper stimulus, although no food was insight their saliva still dribbled.
Cognitive theory
Two keys assumptions underlie this cognitive approach. Memory system is an active organized processor of information. Prior knowledge plays an important role in learning. Cognitive consider how human memory works to promote learning. For example shorting and encoding information.
Constructivism (Piaget`s theory)
Views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts based upon current and past knowledge. It has had a wide ranging impact on learning theories and teaching methods
Progressivism (John Dewey William H . Kilpatrick, John Childs)
They emphasize that education should be life itself, not a preparation for living.
Learning should be directly related to interest of the child. Learning through problem solving should take precedence over the uncalculating of subject matter. The school should encourage cooperation rather than competition.
Reconstructivism (George Counts, Theodore Brameld)
Education must commit itself here and now to the creation of a new social order that will fulfill the basic values of four cultures and at the same time harmonize with the underlying social and economic forces of the modern world. The new society must be a genuine democracy, whose major institutions and resources are controlled by the people themselves.
Finally the means and the ends of education must be completely refashioned to meet the demands of the present cultural crisis and to accord with the findings of the behavioral science.


LISBETH RUIZ ARRIAZA
6076023915
http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/learning theories (education)

There were many theories, one theory that was most developed by B:F Skinner was Behaviorism . It loosely includes the work of such people as (Thorndike, Tolman, Guthrie and Hull) They focused that learning is manifested by a change in behavior. Second the environment shapes behavior, and third the principles of contiguity (how close in time two events must be for a bond to be performed and reinforced (any means of increasing the likelihood that an event will be repeated.
Another theory was Classical Conditioning, where the behavior becomes a reflex response to stimulus as in the case of Pavlov`s dogs. He was interested in studying reflexes, when he was that the dog drooled without the proper stimulus, although no food was insight their saliva still dribbled.
Cognitive theory
Two keys assumptions underlie this cognitive approach. Memory system is an active organized processor of information. Prior knowledge plays an important role in learning. Cognitive consider how human memory works to promote learning. For example shorting and encoding information.
Constructivism (Piaget`s theory)
Views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts based upon current and past knowledge. It has had a wide ranging impact on learning theories and teaching methods
Progressivism (John Dewey William H . Kilpatrick, John Childs)
They emphasize that education should be life itself, not a preparation for living.
Learning should be directly related to interest of the child. Learning through problem solving should take precedence over the uncalculating of subject matter. The school should encourage cooperation rather than competition.
Reconstructivism (George Counts, Theodore Brameld)
Education must commit itself here and now to the creation of a new social order that will fulfill the basic values of four cultures and at the same time harmonize with the underlying social and economic forces of the modern world. The new society must be a genuine democracy, whose major institutions and resources are controlled by the people themselves.
Finally the means and the ends of education must be completely refashioned to meet the demands of the present cultural crisis and to accord with the findings of the behavioral science.


LISBETH RUIZ ARRIAZA
6076023915
http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/learning theories (education)

THEORIES OF EDUCATION
1. Progressivism: John Dewey, William Kilpatrick, John Childs. Education should be based in real life situations and should be meaningful to learners, it states that teachers should not encourage competitiveness but cooperation, and that education should happen in an environment that encourages democracy to model people with new ideas. Methods: experiential learning, problem solving, critical thinking and cooperative learning.
2. Perennialism: Robert Hutchins, Mortimer Adler. This theory states that education and opportunities for education should be the same, since human nature remains the same anywhere, regardless of the environment people are. Education is a preparation for life, not its imitation. Basic knowledge needs to be taught, so learners can use it along their lives. Literature, philosophy, history and science should be taught. Methods: Socratic method.
3. Essentialism: William Bagley, Herman Horne. Learning engages hard work and unwilling application. The teacher has the most important role, rather than the learners. The assimilation of arranged subject matter is the most important element of the educational process. Traditional mental discipline methods are necessary.
4. Reconstructionism: George Counts, Theodore Brameld. New society must be a real democracy. Social and cultural forces condition the learner, school and education without any doubt. Means and ends of education must be restructured to meet the demands of current cultural needs.
5. Communism: Marx and Lennin. Teachers overstress children’s heads and work to enrich schools’ owners. It is based on the premise that: “Educational policies are intended to keep people in ignorance” (Marx)

--Melissa Concogua 6076 02 330
<mailto:melissaconcogua@hotmail.com>

FIVE THEORIES OF EDUCATION
MONICA HERRERA 6076 01 4328
PROGRESSIVISM
Authors John Dewey, William H. Kilpatrick, John Childs. It suggests that Education should be life itself, not a preparation for living, directly related to the interests of the child. Learning through problem solving should take precedence over the inculcating of subject matter. The teacher's role is not to direct but to advice. The school should encourage cooperation rather than competition.
PERENNIALISM
Authors Robert Hutchins, Mortimer Adler. It states that despite differing environments, human nature remains the same everywhere; hence, education should be the same for everyone. Since rationality is man's highest attribute, he must use it to direct his instinctual nature in accordance with deliberately chosen ends. It is education's task to import knowledge of eternal truth. Education is not an imitation of life but a preparation for it. Students should study the great works of literature, philosophy, history, and science in which men through the ages have revealed their greatest aspirations and achievements.
ESSENTIALISM
Authors William Bagley, Herman Horne. Indicates that learning, of its very nature, involves hard work and often unwilling application. The initiative in education should lie with the teacher rather than with the pupil. The heart of the educational process is the assimilation of prescribed subject matter. The school should retain traditional methods of mental discipline.
RECONSTRUCTIONISM George Counts, Theodore Brameld. It basic characteristics are that education must commit itself here and now to the creation of a new social order that will fulfill the basic values of our culture and at the same time harmonize with the underlying social and economic forces of the modern world. The new society must be a genuine democracy, whose major institutions and resources are controlled by the people themselves. The child, the school, and education itself are conditioned inexorably by social and cultural forces. The teacher must convince his pupils of the validity and urgency of the Reconstructionist solution, but he must do so with scrupulous regard for democratic procedures.
CONSTRUCTIVISM
Author: Jean Piaget. It says that Create real-world environments that employ the context in which learning is relevant; Focus on realistic approaches to solving real-world problems; The instructor is a coach and analyzer of the strategies used to solve these problems; Stress conceptual interrelatedness, providing multiple representations or perspectives on the content; Instructional goals and objectives should be negotiated and not imposed; Evaluation should serve as a self-analysis tool; Provide tools and environments that help learners interpret the multiple perspectives of the world; Learning should be internally controlled and mediated by the learner.
EGRAPHY
http://www.ucs.mun.ca/~emurphy/stemnet/cle3.html
www.people.morehead-st.edu/fs/w.willis/fourtheories.html

--Mónica Herrera comment
<mailto:monicah73@gmail.com>

Behavorism
This theory was most developed by B. F. Skinner.
The process of learning:

• Learning is manifested by a change in behavior.
• The environment shapes behavior.
• How close in time two events must be for a bond to be performed

Learning is the acquisition of new behavior through conditioning.

Educational approaches
• applied behavior analysis,
• direct instruction

Cognitivism
By Bode, a Gestalt psychologist.
Two key assumptions
• memory system is an active organized processor of information
• prior knowledge plays an important role in learning.

Aspects can be found:
• in learning how to learn,
• social role acquisition,
• intelligence
• learning
• memory as related to age.

Educational approach:
Instructional design

Constructivism
Driver et al., 1994
learning as a process:
• the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts based upon current and past knowledge.
• internalized concepts, rules, and general principles may consequently be applied in a practical real-world context.
• The teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discover principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve realistic problems.
•
Educational Approaches: Active learning, self-directed learning, transformational learning, experiential learning, situated cognition, and reflective practice.

Connectivism,
developed by George Siemens
It combines relevant elements of many learning theories, social structures, and technology to create a powerful theoretical construct for learning in the digital age.

Educational Approaches:
Connectivism and Connective Knowledge

Activities:
• threaded discussions in Moodle
• blog posts
• synchronous online meetings.

Progressivism
John Dewey, William H. Kilpatrick, John Childs

1. Education should be life itself, not a preparation for living.
2. Learning should be directly related to the interests of the child.
3. Learning through problem solving should take precedence over the inculcating of subject matter.
4. The teacher's role is not to direct but to advise.


--6076046369 Stiliani Alegria
<mailto:stiliani_alegria@yahoo.com>

Adult Learning: It was developed by K.P. Cross in 1981. This theory is based on integrating theoretical frameworks for adult learning as done in the Andragogy theory and Lifespan Pshychology. It has 2 variables: (a) Personal Characteristics such as age, life phases and development stages; (b) Situational Characteristics as part-time and full-time learning, voluntary and compulsory learning.
The Adult Learning Theory is intended to provide guidelines for adult educational programs.

Constructivist Theory: J. Bruner states that learning is an active process to construct new ideas or concepts according to knowledge (current or past). Some characteristics are described: (a) Instructors encourage Ss to discover principles by themselves. (b) Instructors – Ss engage in an active dialog. (c)Instructores has to translate information into an appropriate format to learner’s current states of understanging. (d) Curriculum should organized in a spiral manner.
Bruner has expanded his theory to cover social and cultural aspects of learning as well as practicing LAW. It is focused on language learning in Young Children.

Experiential Learning:
Experiential Learning = Personal change and growth
Carl Rogers oriented this theory to the humanistic education movement and apply it to psychotherapy and humanistic approach to pshychology. It is oriented to adult learners.
Some Characteristics are (1) Students participation in the learning process and control its nature and direction; (2) Direct confrontation with practical, social, personal or research problems; (3) self-evaluation to assess progress.

Multiple Intelligences: It suggests that there are distincts forms of intelligences in individuals. H. Gardner (1983) impplies that learning/teaching should focus on particular intellingences according to each person.
It has been focused on child development but it applies to all ages also. The different intelligences are: Linguistic, Musical, Logical-Mathematical, Spatial, Body-Kinestheric, Intrapersonal and Interpersonal.

Andragogy: Malcolm Knowles suggests that this theory develop a theory for ADULT LEARNING since that are self-directed and decide responsibly on their own decisions. Andragogy makes the following assumptions (1) Adults need to know why they are learning; (2) they also need to learn by experiencing; (3) Problem-solving; (4) Adult learns best when the topics are of immediate value.
This theory means that instruction for adults need to focus on process rather that in the content.

e-graphy: http://tip.psychology.org/theories.html

Ailin Salguero
6076-99-2207

--Ailin Salguero de López
<mailto:ailins@hotmail.com>

5 Theories of Education:
1-The Progressivism Theory:
BY John Dewey, William H. Kilpatrick, John Childs
This theory states that Education is the life, not how to be prepared for it. It is related to the child´s theory.
It allows children to develop the problem solving skill. The teacher doesn´t direct but advices.
It also allows the interplay of ideas and personalities as a democratic role.
2-The Perennialism Theory:
BY Robert Hutchins, Mortimer Adler
This theory considers that it doesn´t matter in what environment a human is, the education should be taken for everyone in the same way.
Its most important task is to import knowledge of the eternal true and reality.
The children and students have to study the great works of literature, history, philosophy, and even science in order they can base their aspirations on them.
3-The Reconstructionism Theory:
BY George Counts, Theodore Brameld
This theory says that education commits itself now and here in order to create a new social organization and to use the most important values in our cultures.
Its society is democrat as its institutions and people in them.
Here, the teacher should guide her students to notice the urgency of a reconstructionist solution and follow democratic procedures.
And the resources and means of education should be edited and re-molded to find the demands of the present cultural needs and adequate them to the behavioral sciences.
4-The Essentialism Theory
BY William Bagley, Herman Horne
This theory states that learning involves a hard work even with an unwilling application.
The main subject in this type of education in the classroom is the teacher rather than the student.
The schools that apply this method should keep the traditional methods of a mental discipline.
5-The Constructivist Theory:
BY Jean Piaget
These theory´s environments provide a representation of the real life situations, the ones emphasize the meaningful construction of knowledge reproduction.
The most difficult challenge in this theory is that it´s very difficult to change the paradigms and minds of the people.
It has a technique called Cooperative Learning, which bases in the fact that students should work as teams, and every member of this team should have a role or task to perform in order to achieve a stated objective.
It also has another technique to be used, which is the multiple intelligences usage in the classrooms, which says that every single student learns in a different way, and we as teachers should look for ways in which they are learning in the way is more appropriate for them.
E-GRAPHY http://people.morehead-st.edu/fs/w.willis/fourtheories.html

--celeste lemus
<mailto:celesteskity@yahoo.es>

5 THEORIES OF EDUCATION
1-The Progressivism Theory:
BY John Dewey, William H. Kilpatrick, John Childs
This theory states that Education is the life, not how to be prepared for it. It is related to the child´s theory.
It allows children to develop the problem solving skill. The teacher doesn´t direct but advices.
It also allows the interplay of ideas and personalities as a democratic role.
2-The Perennialism Theory:
BY Robert Hutchins, Mortimer Adler
This theory considers that it doesn´t matter in what environment a human is, the education should be taken for everyone in the same way.
Its most important task is to import knowledge of the eternal true and reality.
The children and students have to study the great works of literature, history, philosophy, and even science in order they can base their aspirations on them.
3-The Reconstructionism Theory:
BY George Counts, Theodore Brameld
This theory says that education commits itself now and here in order to create a new social organization and to use the most important values in our cultures.
Its society is democrat as its institutions and people in them.
Here, the teacher should guide her students to notice the urgency of a reconstructionist solution and follow democratic procedures.
And the resources and means of education should be edited and re-molded to find the demands of the present cultural needs and adequate them to the behavioral sciences.
4-The Essentialism Theory
BY William Bagley, Herman Horne
This theory states that learning involves a hard work even with an unwilling application.
The main subject in this type of education in the classroom is the teacher rather than the student.
The schools that apply this method should keep the traditional methods of a mental discipline.
5-The Constructivist Theory:
BY Jean Piaget
These theory´s environments provide a representation of the real life situations, the ones emphasize the meaningful construction of knowledge reproduction.
The most difficult challenge in this theory is that it´s very difficult to change the paradigms and minds of the people.
It has a technique called Cooperative Learning, which bases in the fact that students should work as teams, and every member of this team should have a role or task to perform in order to achieve a stated objective.
It also has another technique to be used, which is the multiple intelligences usage in the classrooms, which says that every single student learns in a different way, and we as teachers should look for ways in which they are learning in the way is more appropriate for them.
E-GRAPHY http://people.morehead-st.edu/fs/w.willis/fourtheories.html
CELESTE LEMUS
6076-04-3548

Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalisis. It is a theory that developed the personality of the person, it is divided into five stages the oral stage refers when the kid looked for reach pleasure by putting things inside his/her mouth. Then, the Anal stage refers when kids look for pleasure by going to the bathroom, then, the phallic stage is when kid feels pleasure by touchis his/her private parts and feel in love of his/her mom or dad. And the genital satge refers to the adolesecence and old age when humans look for pleasure by having sex relationships.
If someone has a fixation, that means that a person wouldn’t be able to pass to the next stage.

Jean Piaget: Cognitive development: This theory refers to the different satges that every human being goes trough by developing some characteristics of the mind development. This theory is divided into four stages: 1. sensiomotor. 2. preoperational 3. concrete operationas and 4. formal operations.

Lev Vygotsky: Sociocultural Theory: It refers to how culture affects the learning in kids, he tought that genes or nature is developed on every human and it interacts with nurture when a person wants to learn something. When time goes by the student develop the ZPD and the MKO strategies to learn by the help of the environment.

Ivan Pavlov: Classic conditioning refers to show an unconditionated stimuli in order to get a desire response, when it happens the conditionated stimuli comes and substitute the unconditionated stimuli, to get a conditionated response. He believed in punishment. And he started to work with a biology process on animals but very useful to conditionate a desire behaviour in humans.

Buruhs Frederick Skinner: Operant Conditioning refers to conditioning but by reinforce the desire behaviour or answer. He created the skinner box when he put a rat in who pushes a label and gets some food. The same could happen with the children, if we reinforce the good response or behaviour he will try to do it frequently.



--pozuelosvivian
<mailto:pozuelosvivian@yahoo.com>

Mention at least 5 Theories of Education; explain about their authors, characteristics, methods, orientation or guidelines, and application in the teaching-learning process.

PROGRESSIVISM
One of the theories is progressivism his author was John Dewey, who said the life education should be by itself and not preparation for living.
The most important guidelines were learning should be direct relation to the student’s interests, and through the problem solving, student should take precedence over the subject matter.
Teacher is not the direct intervention, but is an advisor.
Developed the intellectual and ethical teacher looks like.
It was identified with liberalism and believed in social justice
The principles –social control-freedom-purpose-and the progressive organization subject matter.
CONSTRUVISM
It was developed by Piaget who had had wide range of learning and realize reform movements of teaching techniques has been mixed with some researching supports and contradictory results of learning.
The learner is a unique individual with unique needs and backgrounds; he is also seen as complex and multidimensional social person.
The characteristic is the teacher is a facilitator and the learner construct his own understanding and doesn’t reflect when reads.
Method is dynamic interaction between task, teacher and learner.
Learners with different skills and backgrounds should collaborate in tasks and discussions in order to arrive at a shared understanding of the truth in a specific subject.
PERENNIALISM
By Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler.
Main characteristic
It is constant ideas that have support the tests of time. This is considered to be universal knowledge. These ideas are evident in many new programs being emphasized today.
It contains the humanist tradition, but also includes the scientific tradition
That means refer to a scholar or academic in Humanity of the group of ethical stances in long-running mail discussion of humanities
The trends will continue as we try to be competitive with the rest of the world and as technology continues to progress
Method student should be taught certain basic subjects that he will acquaint with the world existence.
Studies of great works in literature, history, philosophy and science these can help to them to increase knowledge as aspirations and achievements.
RECONSTRUCTIONISM
By George Counts, Theodore Brameld.
Education performs the creation of a new social order that fulfil the basic values of the culture and at the same time harmonize with social and economic forces of the modern world.
Characteristic
Education must be completely re-constructed to meet the demands of the present culture and the findings of the behavioural sciences.
Method teacher must convince the students to validate and necessity of find solution of the Reconstructionist with meticulous regard for democratic procedures.
His only one purpose was create a school system with democracy where controversial topics play an enormous role into Students with interchange cultural things at least half century later we started to take his philosophy as multicultural and global education

ESSENTIALISM William Bagley, Herman Horne.
Learning involves hard work and reluctant application
Characteristic: assimilation of the subject matter has to be the heart of the educational process, and also traditional methods don’t have to put away from the mental discipline.
Methods the initiative in education has lie with the teacher and the pupil together.
guadalupe armas 6076 93 10575
--anonymus

1. PROGRESSIVISM
Authors. John Dewey, William H. Kilpatrick, John Childs
Education should be life itself, not a preparation for living. Learning should be directly related to the interests of the child. Learning through problem solving should take precedence over the inculcating of subject matter.
The teacher's role is not to direct but to advice. The school should encourage cooperation rather than competition. Only democracy permits - indeed encourages - the free interplay of ideas and personalities that is a necessary condition of true growth.


2. RECONSTRUCTIONISM
Authors: George Counts, Theodore Brameld
Education must commit itself here and now to the creation of a new social order that will fulfill the basic values of our culture and at the same time harmonize with the underlying social and economic forces of the modern world.
The new society must be a genuine democracy, whose major institutions and resources are controlled by the people themselves.
The child, the school, and education itself are conditioned inexorably by social and cultural forces.
The teacher must convince his pupils of the validity and urgency of the deconstructionist solution, but he must do so with scrupulous regard for democratic procedures. The means and ends of education must be completely re-fashioned to meet the demands of the present cultural crisis and to accord with the findings of the behavioral sciences.



3. SUBSUMPTION THEORY
Author: D. Ausubel
Ausubel's theory is concerned with how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations in a school setting (in contrast to theories developed in the context of laboratory experiments). According to Ausubel, learning is based upon the kinds of superordinate, representational, and combinatorial processes that occur during the reception of information. A primary process in learning is subsumption in which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure on a substantive, non-verbatim basis. Cognitive structures represent the residue of all learning experiences; forgetting occurs because certain details get integrated and lose their individual identity.



4. MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
Author: H. Gardner

The theory of multiple intelligences suggests that there are a number of distinct forms of intelligence that each individual possesses in varying degrees. Gardner proposes seven primary forms: linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, body-kinesthetic, intrapersonal (e.g., insight, metacognition) and interpersonal (e.g., social skills).
According to Gardner, the implication of the theory is that learning/teaching should focus on the particular intelligences of each person. For example, if an individual has strong spatial or musical intelligences, they should be encouraged to develop these abilities. Gardner points out that the different intelligences represent not only different content domains but also learning modalities. A further implication of the theory is that assessment of abilities should measure all forms of intelligence, not just linguistic and logical-mathematical.
Gardner also emphasizes the cultural context of multiple intelligences. Each culture tends to emphasize particular intelligences. For example, Gardner (1983) discusses the high spatial abilities of the Puluwat people of the Caroline Islands, who use these skills to navigate their canoes in the ocean. Gardner also discusses the balance of personal intelligences required in Japanese society.


CLAUDIA LORENA SOR REYES

CONTINUE...

5. CONNECTIONISM
Autor: E. Thorndike
The learning theory of Thorndike represents the original S-R framework of behavioral psychology: Learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli and responses. Such associations or "habits" become strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. The paradigm for S-R theory was trial and error learning in which certain responses come to dominate others due to rewards. The hallmark of connectionism (like all behavioral theory) was that learning could be adequately explained without refering to any unobservable internal states.
Thorndike's theory consists of three primary laws: (1) law of effect - responses to a situation which are followed by a rewarding state of affairs will be strengthened and become habitual responses to that situation, (2) law of readiness - a series of responses can be chained together to satisfy some goal which will result in annoyance if blocked, and (3) law of exercise - connections become strengthened with practice and weakened when practice is discontinued. A corollary of the law of effect was that responses that reduce the likelihood of achieving a rewarding state (i.e., punishments, failures) will decrease in strength.
The theory suggests that transfer of learning depends upon the presence of identical elements in the original and new learning situations; i.e., transfer is always specific, never general. In later versions of the theory, the concept of "belongingness" was introduced; connections are more readily established if the person perceives that stimuli or responses go together (c.f. Gestalt principles). Another concept introduced was "polarity" which specifies that connections occur more easily in the direction in which they were originally formed than the opposite. Thorndike also introduced the "spread of effect" idea, i.e., rewards affect not only the connection that produced them but temporally adjacent connections as well.

EGRAFIA:
http://tip.psychology.org/thorn.html
http://people.morehead-st.edu/fs/w.willis/fourtheories.html

Constructivism
According to this theory the people construct their own understanding of the world where they live. Each person generates his/her own rules and mental models which are used to make sense or explain the daily experiences. In this theory learning is viewed as the process of adjusting the mental models to accommodate new experiences.
Progressivism.
This theory states that education must be based on the principle that humans are social beings who learn best in true contexts with other people. That children learn better if they investigate as scientists, by doing things, and when learning is related to real life experiences and activities.
Essentialism
This theory states that students should learn the conventional basic subject matters in a rigorous and systematical way. According to this theory the children learn progressively from simpler to complex skills. Essentialist insist that students should learn the “essentials” or “basics” of academic knowledge, to instruct the intelligence, promote logic and make certain all people live and acquire a common culture.

Cognitivism
In this theory Jean Piaget emphasizes on two important functions. Organization or equilibrium and adaptation. Organization refers to the fact that all cognitive structures are interrelated and that any new information must be fitted into the existing system. Adaptation refers to the predisposition of the organism to fit with its surroundings to uphold survival. Adaptation is divided into two terms: assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is the inclination to understand new experiences in terms of existing data and accommodation occurs when the new information is too complex to be integrated structure giving order to cognitive structures to modify in response to new experiences.

Multiple Intelligences
According to this theory all humans have seven intelligences. Because our understanding of the brain and human behavior is constantly changing, the number of intelligences is expanding. This theory claims that we all have all the intelligences, but that no two people are exactly alike. The seven intelligences are verbal-linguistic, logical-mathematical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical-rhythmic, intrapersonal, and interpersonal the naturalist, and existentialist have been recently added. Technology can be used to facilitate learning in each intelligence area. There is no "right way" to integrate intelligences or technology into the classroom. The key is to provide the most effective learning environment for students.

wikipedia
encarta encyclopedia
Alejandra Santa Maria
6076-02-3340
--Alejandra Santa Maria
<mailto:alealemai@hotmail.com>