SOCIAL REFORM IN THE 1960s : KENNEDY AND JOHNSON

THE NEW FRONTIER AND THE GREAT SOCIETY

You need to know:

(a) What was meant by the NEW FRONTIER? Who was responsible and what were its aims?

(b) What were the main policies of the New Frontier and how successful were they?

(d) What was meant by THE GREAT SOCIETY?

(e) What changes were brought about by the Great Society?

(f) Who achieved the most, Kennedy or Johnson?

Where can I find the information?

(1) This handout

(2) The textbook, pages 107-118

1. PRESIDENT KENNEDY AND THE NEW FRONTIER

(a) What was THE NEW FRONTIER?

In his acceptance speech in 1960 the newly elected President, John F Kennedy, talked about standing at the edge of a New Frontier. Initially it was a typical piece of political spin, designed to unite and inspire the nation behind him in what appeared to be a visionary future. However, it became the title for a series of social reforms carried out by the Kennedy Administration between 1960 and 1963, aimed at creating a fairer society in which blacks and women secured greater civil rights, and people had the opportunity to better themselves. The term was chosen to create a feeling of excitement, in the hope people would support him.

(b) How did Kennedy seek to implement THE NEW FRONTIER?

Kennedy knew that changes would have to be made at the top of government to get his reforms carried out. He gathered a team of the brightest young experts from America’s best universities, most with no experience of government, like Robert McNamara, whom he appointed as Secretary for Defence. These people became known as the Brains Trust. Kennedy hoped such bright, young talented people would produce exciting new ideas for tackling America’s social and economic problems.

Right from the start there was some concern about Kennedy’s plans. Some, like the Vice-President, Lyndon B Johnson, feared these men were too inexperienced and would encounter considerable problems with which they would be unable to cope. Other, older men, resented losing influence to young men from outside the political process. Some Democrats from the South, known as the Dixie Democrats, were worried about the effects that supporting black civil rights would have back in the southern states with the white voters. Others believed that governments had no right to interfere, that it would cost too much, would encourage people to rely on the State rather than helping themselves, and that it was like communism.

(d) What were Kennedy’s reforms and did they work?

AREA	PLAN	DEGREE OF SUCCESS
CIVIL RIGHTS	Kennedy was determined to end the discrimination against blacks in the USA	He did take some actions: (a) He appointed 5 federal judges, including Thurgood Marshall, a civil rights activist. This sent out the message that he was determined to uphold the law and to prove this he threatened legal action against the state of Louisiana for refusing to fund schools which were not segregated. (b) He sent 23,000 government troops in October 1962 to ensure that a single black student, James Meredith, could study at the University of Mississippi. He sent a clear message and by 1963 Alabama was the only state with a segregated education system. (c) He threatened to evict the Washington Redskins football team from the federal funded stadium unless they agreed to hire black players. (d) He introduced a Civil Rights Bill to Congress in February to give blacks equal rights, but Congress rejected it. However, he did not play a leading role in the Civil Rights Movement for fear of losing the support of Southern Democrats who opposed civil rights.
ECONOMIC MEASURES	Kennedy wanted to make the US economy strong.	He achieved a degree of success here: (a) He cut income taxes to give people more spending money (b) Grants were given to high-tech companies to invest in high-tech equipment to train workers. (c) He increased spending on defence and space technology, all of which secured or created jobs, and also promised that the USA would put a man on the moon by the end of the 1960s. (d) Finally, he limited prices and wages to ensure inflation did not spiral out of control. As a result the economy grew quickly and people in work generally prospered. HOWEVER there were limitations: There was still unemployment in traditional industries such as coal, iron and steel. Unemployment was twice as high among black The boom was heavily dependent on government spending
SOCIAL REFORMS	Kennedy wanted to ensure that poor Americans had the opportunity to help themselves. He believed that the USA had to deliberately go into deficit to spend money on improving the economy and helping people.	(a) He increased the minimum wage from $1 an hour to $1.25 (b) His Housing Act enabled people in run-down areas to get loans to improve their housing and local authorities could get money to clear slums. (c) His Area Redevelopment Act helped poor communities to get grants or loans to start new businesses. (d) The Social Security Act gave greater financial help to the elderly and unemployed. Social security benefits were extended to each child whose father was unemployed. (e) The Manpower Development and Training Act retrained the unemployed. A loan of $900 million was authorised to provide work for retrained workers. Again, there were limitations. -- Slum clearance itself created housing shortages in inner-City areas. -- The minimum wage only helped those who already had a job. -- The poorest people could not afford to pay back the housing loans. -- Medicare, which included free medical care for the old, was thrown out by Congress.

(f) Why was there so much opposition to Kennedy’s reforms?

Kennedy faced opposition in Congress to his New Frontier policies for a number of reasons :

(a) His own position as president was not strong as he had only won a narrow victory in the 1960 presidential election.

(b) Many older members of Congress felt he was too young and inexperienced and distrusted his 'Brains Trust' appointments. Kennedy, himself, was not really interested in domestic politics and made little effort to persuade Congressmen to support his policies.

(c) Some were suspicious of the radical nature of his New Frontier and the pace of change and saw it as a 'socialist' programme.

(d) He was the first Catholic president. This, again, created suspicion from the more traditional Protestant politicians.

(e) The greatest opposition was from Southern Congressmen, even Democrats, members of his own party, who disliked his commitment to civil rights. They feared that equal rights for black people would cost them the votes of whites in the South.

(f) Kennedy hoped to be re-elected president in 1964 and needed the support of these Southern Democrat Congressmen.

(g) Some opposed the further extension of the power of federal government and greater central government spending. Many still believed in the values of 'rugged individualism'.

Kennedy's assassination

On 22 November 1963, Kennedy visited Dallas, Texas, to try to win the support of Southern Democrats for his policies. He was traveling through the city in an open-topped car with his wife Jackie and the Governor of Texas, John Connally, when Kennedy was struck by at least two bullets. He died on his way to hospital. A man, Lee Harvey Oswald, was arrested the same day and accused of his murder. Two days later, Oswald himself was shot by Jack Ruby, a Dallas nightclub owner.

There have been numerous theories put forward about Kennedy's death. Some believe it was part of a Mafia or communist conspiracy and others believe Oswald was innocent.

Whatever the truth, the death shocked the USA and the world and seemed to bring to a premature end a very promising presidency.

2. PRESIDENT JOHNSON AND THE GREAT SOCIETY

(a) What was THE GREAT SOCIETY?

Lyndon Johnson was president from 1963 to 1969 and his achievements have often been overlooked or underestimated due to the reputation of Kennedy and the US involvement in the war in Vietnam. This war destroyed Johnson’s reputation in the USA and led him to decide not to stand for re-election.

Johnson decided to continue the work of Kennedy and carry it further. In his first speech as president he talked of a 'great society' which would declare war on poverty. To do this, he planned to improve the health of the poor and the old by providing them with a better diet and living conditions. He called for 'an immediate end to racial injustice', especially racial discrimination in employment and education. Johnson tackled areas that Kennedy had not been able to improve such as medical care for the poor.

(b) Why was Johnson a more skilful politician than Kennedy?

The 'spin doctors' did not create a false image of Johnson. He was an experienced politician who knew how to get things done and how to make deals with Congress. He was far more successful than nearly any other president in getting measures passed through Congress. Also, because he was a Southerner, he knew how to deal with the Southern Democrats and overcome their opposition - especially to civil rights. Some people believe his six foot five inch frame helped him to dominate others.

(c ) What were the main features of Johnson’s Great Society and how successful were they?

AREA	PLAN	DEGREE OF SUCCESS
ECONOMIC HELP	Johnson was determined to wage war on poverty. Intended to use resources of the federal government to drive through series of programmes to create jobs, such as Head Start. To eradicate poverty in inner cities planned educational reforms, system of federal loans and local projects to rebuild communities. Proposed increasing minimum wage.	Again some success but costs meant scaling down. However jobs created and inner city improvements begun. Government funded the clearing of slums and building of new houses, educational facilities and improved transport facilities for the masses, yet again had to be scaled down. Model Cities Act, 1966 Improved inner-city environments by clearing slums or providing parks or sports facilities. It also gave top-up payments to people on low incomes to help them pay their rent. Increased minimum wage to $1.40 The Economic Opportunity Act 1964 · Provided training to disadvantaged youths aged 16-21 · Helped low income students to work their way through college · Recruited volunteers to work and teach in low income slum areas
SOCIAL REFORM	Wanted Federal government to do more to help educationally disadvantaged students. Proposed first major federal aid package through the Elementary and Secondary Education Act.	Some improvement but again extent of his plan had to be scaled down due to cost and effects of Vietnam War. Food Stamp Programme Gave families on welfare food stamps, instead of cash, to ensure they bought food. Elementary and Secondary Education Act, 1965 Put federal funding into improving education in poorer areas. Aid of Families and Dependent Children Act (AFDC) Gave financial aid to 745,000 families on low incomes.
CIVIL RIGHTS	Wanted to introduce Civil Rights measures to end all forms of discrimination.	Introduced comprehensive Civil Rights Act and Voting Act. Civil Rights Act, 1964 Banned discrimination in public places, in federally assisted programmes, and in employment. Gave federal government new employment power to enforce desegregation and prosecute voting violations. Set up Equal Opportunity Commission. Voting Rights Act, 1965 Appointed agents to ensure that voting procedures were carried out properly. Mixed marriages In 1967, the Supreme Court declared all laws banning mixed race marriages were to be removed. Used troops to enforce the law and used law to prosecute offenders. Made him unpopular with some sections of America and race riots made some question his methods. Also many blacks questioned his support when he seemed more concerned about Vietnam than in fighting poverty among blacks.
MEDICARE AND HELP FOR ELDERLY	Wanted the Federal Government to provide medical care for elderly (medicare) and for welfare recipients (Medicaid)	Made some improvement to medical provision, but plan had to be scaled down due to escalating cost of Vietnam War (which saw more expenditure than did medical care). Also many opposed his plans because of cost. Medical Care Act, 1965 Free health care for those over 65 and, in the following year, Medicaid which gave free treatment to those receiving welfare benefits.
DEFENCE AND ANTI-COMMUNISM	Wanted to open USA to all races and to end discriminatory ethnic quotas. Wanted to step up war against communism in Vietnam.	Successful in ending the discrimination. Vietnam War led to limited success of policies and his unpopularity – forced not to run in 1968.

How successful was the Great Society?

However, all Johnson’s attempts to create the ‘Great Society’ were undermined by the high costs of the war against Vietnam.

· At the beginning of his presidency, Johnson took advantage of the sympathy for the government after the death of Kennedy.

· Later the policies brought huge opposition from both Republicans and members of his own party, the Democrats. Republicans accused him of wasting money on welfare programmes and undermining 'rugged individualism' . He was accused of overspending on welfare programmes with rapid increases in health spending in particular.

· Some wanted him to go further. He was accused of doing too little to tackle the problems of the inner cities. In 1967, there was serious rioting in several cities including six days in Watts, the black district of Los Angeles. Thirty-five people were killed and hundreds of buildings looted and burned.

· The early public enthusiasm for the Great Society faded as taxes went up to pay for his programme and inflation reached six per cent in 1968.

· Johnson also had to wind many of his projects down because of the cost of the Vietnam War. In its last two years, the Great Society seemed to run out of steam and Congress cut back on its funding.

· Eventually Johnson himself was worn down by the Vietnam War and decided not to stand for re-election in 1968. The greatest problem for Johnson was the escalation of US involvement in the war in Vietnam (the anti-war protests are discussed further in Chapter 10). This was not only costly, meaning spending was diverted from the Great Society to paying for the war, but it led to increasing criticism of Johnson himself. His great election victory of 1964 seemed in the distant past, as many Americans celebrated his decision not to run for re-election as president in 1968.

HOWEVER

Johnson had done much for the poorer sections of American society. Twenty-five million Americans were given access to decent healthcare for the first time. The number of black people living below the poverty line fell by over fifty per cent. He greatly advanced the movement for civil rights with the Civil Rights and Voting Acts. Above all, like Roosevelt in the 1930s, he had greatly extended the role of federal government in intervening to make a difference, especially in the reduction of poverty.

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