Problems for the Vine

The vine is susceptable to a variety of hazards as with any other agriculteral products. There are four headings they can be grouped under: soil, weather conditions, pests and disease.

Soil
In the vineyard it is essential that the best grape variety and the ideal rootstock are chosen for the soil. For example Chardonnay produces its finest wines on chalky soil, that soil can make the vine susceptable to chlorosis a malady of the vine caused by a lack of free iron, particularly prevalent in lime-rich soils. The vines leaves yellow and yield drops as photosythesis is reduced. In an established vineyard the soil can be treated with ferrous sulphite, but the best solution is careful selection of suitable rootstocks.

Mineral deficiencies in soil can be minimised by judicious fertilizer application.

Weather Conditions

Frost
Spring and winter are seasons where frost can be a hazard. In winter earthing up a vine is the best protection. Only severe frosts cause damage but can kill the plant. In more temperate vineyard regions frost damage occurs to young and delicate buds during the spring. Traditional protection involved the use of smudge-pots, which generate smoke and kept frost at bay. Now heaters are the replacement used when frost is forecast. In parts of California wind-machines are common.

Alternatively, many vineyards now employ the aspersion system of frost protection. Sprinkling-systems are installed in the vineyards and, when spring frosts are forecast , the vines are sprayed with water so that the shoots will be protected by an insulating coat of ice.

Drought
Irrigation is forbidden in the European community except under abnormal circumstances. It is common in the New World and might take a number of forms; overhead sprinklers, ground-level drip-irrigation or, as happens in Chile and Argentina, the diversion of streams through the vineyards.

Hail
Summer hail can be very destructive and damaged berries can, in due course, impart a distinctive off-taste to the wine. The best protection is insurance ; or sending a plane up to seed the potential storm-clouds with chemicals, so that rain falls rather than hail.

Coulure and Millerandage
Warm dry and breezy weather is neede for flowers to set and to pollinate successfully even though the vine is self pollinating. Coulure is the term used when the flower does not set, millerandage when the fruit fails to set ,usually as a result of poor pollination. There are certain grape varieties that are more prone to this problem than others but it is most fequently caused by cold , rainy weather at the crucial relevant development stage.

Pests
Phylloxera Vastatrix
The insect which is a native of the east coast of North America, first reached Europe in 1860. It lives almost exclusively on the vine. Phylloxera has a complicated life cycle, involving winged adults and burrowing larvae, It is the larvae which causes the most damage as they feed on the root of the vine and, in the case of Vitas Vinifera the sap will drain out through the roots and the vine will die. The vines from North America have developed a resistance to phylloxera by forming calluses over the wound to prevent the bleeding. It can also form galls on the underside of the vines leaves. These galls contain the eggs for the next generation aphid which are not particulary injurious to the vines themselves. These galls affect American vines more than vinifera ones.

Throughout most of the worlds vineyards phylloxera is now endemic. All new plantings will have American rootstocks grafted with European scions. Unfortunately some American rootstocks planted in California did not live up to expectations. Growers there are experiencing problems.

Grape Moths(Cochylis, Pyralis and Eudemis)
Their caterpillars attack the buds in the spring and the grapes themselves later in the year. Treatment is by spraying the vines with insecticides.

Red Spider Mite and Yellow Spider Mite

In hot, dry weather, these are most prevalent. Since insecticides have killed off their natural predators they become increasingly common. they infest the leaves and thus leseen the vegetative growth. Organic vineyards encourage the growth of predators while the rest combat them with specialist sprays.

Nematodes
Yhese are microscopic worms that attack the roots of vines. Prevention is the best method since treatment after the fact is very difficult. This involves totally sanitsing the soil before plantation and selecting resistant rootstocks.

Birds and Animals
Birds often soon learn to ignore automatic alarms (ie birdbangers)and in some countries can be quite destructive. Netting seems to be the best solution but is expensive. Animals such as badgers, deer and wild boar will feed on ripen grapes so fencing should be used as a protection against them.

Disease
During the growing season regular sprayings will take place in order to minmise disease. Generally, these will be done by tractors driving through the vineyards, but occasionally, where the vineyards are on steep slopes or when very rapid action needs to be taken, it will be done by helicopter or plane. Otherwise it is done on foot.

In most temperate areas, where there is rainfall during the growing season, something between eight and twelve sprayings will be necessary each year. In more generous climates, with rain-free summers and autumns, much fewer will be needed.

Oidium (powdery mildew)
This is a fungal disease that develops on the leaves of the vine as a white powdery growth of spores and eventually will cause the berries to split. The treatment used is to spray with sulphur.

Peronospera (downey mildew)
Another fungal disease, affecting the leaves with a downy growth of fungus, and reducing their effectivness. Originally the only treatment was copper suphate and lime in mixture (bordeaux mixture), now sysytemic fungicides are also used and the disease has become less widespread as a result.

Botrytis cinerea (grey rot or noble rot)
It is either welcomed or dreaded by the grower, depending on the circumstances. A fungal disease that is often spread by damp humid conditions, it presents a bigger problem for black grapes than white as it causes loss of colour in the wine and because of maceration on the shins , can lead to off-flavours. As grey rot it tends to affect mostly mostly immature berries. Early treatment by spraying is advised though this has to be completed before the grapes begin to ripen. It can seriously affect both yield and quality.

Damp mornings and dry afternoons are essentially the ideal conditions for pourriture noble or edelfaule which is necessary for the production of the great sweet wines of Bordeaux, Germany and eleswhere. Botrytis (it's benevolent form) will affect the ripened grapes by consuming water from the berry by the way of microscopic filaments through the pores of the grape skin. This concentrates the sugars, reducing the grape to a shrivelled raisin. The fact that it is never uniform in it's development means that several pickings may be needed to complete the harvest.

Black rot
Yet another fungus, brought on by heavy rain and affecting both the leaves and thr grapes. Treatment is by spraying with Bordeaux mixture.

Eutypoise ("Dead-arm" or Eutypa)
This appeared for the first time in the vineyards of Burgundy in 1988. It is a fungal infection. It attacks the vine-wood through pruning cuts. No treatment has yet been discovered.

Anthracnose.
A fungal disease most common in hybrid vines planted in damp soil. It is recognised by stains appearing on the leaves, which eventually become holes. Treatment is the same as for downy mildew, spraying with Bordeaux mixture.

Court-noue
This is a contagious virus which stunts the growth of the vine and leads to very low yields from ill-formed buches of grapes. there is no known cure. Infected vines have to bedug up and the land sanitised. it is recommended that it should not be replanted. However, in more expensive vineyard regions this may prove to be impracticable.

The Vineyard Calendar

Therefore each picture of a growers life must vary, and even within each region it changes rapidly with the arrival of new techniques and more sophisticated modern machinery.

For example here is what the vineyard year of a grapegrower using the single guyot method in northern France might look like.

October:
After the vintage . apart from work in the cellar, the main priority is to clear those vineyards that are going to be replanted, or land that is to be planted for the first time. Also, any unproductive vines within the rows should be uprooted and the soil prepared for their replacement.

The vines leaves change colour and begin to fall with the first frosts.

November:
Autumn ploughing to break up the soil.

Autumn pruning. The year's producing branch is cut off as are any non-productive canes. the dead shoots are then burnt in portable braziers.

The bases of the vines are earthed up to protect them against winter frosts
(Buttage)

Any soil that has washed down the slopes during the previous season has to be carried up again.

The sap falls and the vine is dormant from now until spring. Shoots lignify to form canes, with embryonic buds at the points where leaves and tendrils grow.

December:
Continuation of November's work.

January:
The beginng of the main pruning. By tradition, in many parts of France, this does not start before the feast-day of the vignerons patron saint, St Vincent, January 22nd.

Pruning is the most specialised works in the vineyard, for each individual vine has to be treated in it's own way - and will be known to the grower. In many ways it is like the education of a child.

February Continuation of pruning.

March:
End of pruning.
Spreading of Fertiliser.
Grafting of new vines.

The vine sap begins to rise and the first signs of growth will be seen.

April:
The earth is taken away from the bases of the vines (Debuttage).

Hoeing, again to break up the soil around the vines

Tying down of the year's production cane to the lower wire.

Planting of young vines from the nursury, which were grafted the previous year. These will either be new plantings, or individual replacement vines in the rows.

Spreading of Herbicide.

the new season's buds burst, later to become shoots. These buds are easily damaged by frost so various protective meassures must be taken in frost-prone areas.

May:
Distinct growth of shoots, first leaves form on the vine, and thecane matures further to form old wood.

Planting of the newly-grafted vine-stock in thenursury.

First spraying against insects and fungal diseases.

Suckers must be removed.

The spreading shoots are brought in within the horizontal wires. This is done for two reasons: it enables the sunlught to reach the nacsent bunches better, and it clears the rows for the tractors to pas(Relevage).

Copius growth of shoots.

June
Relevage continued.

The horizontal wires.(Accolage).

Spraying.

Sanitising of land cleared for planting

The vine flowers (floraison), and fruit then sets on the shoots. this takes place quite rapidly in ideal conditions, orten only taking about a week; but in poor weather can take as long as three weeks, with a knock-off effect on the harvest. as a generisaton, the vintage will take place 100 days from flowering.

July:
Accolage.

Trimming of the vine shoot-tips to see that the maximum amount of nutrient is diverted to the grape-buches.

Spraying.

If the fruit set has been overabundant, the grower may remove surplus bunches to restrict production and increase quality. this may become essential if the maximum yield figure is under pressure.

Vigorus growth of vegetation; berries still small.

August:

Trimming.

Preparation for the vintage: cleaning of press-house and all equipment.

This is the quietest month, as spraying should not be continued in thr four weeks up to picking. It is during this month that much basic repair work is done.

Early in the month, the grapes take on colour (until this moment , black grapes have been green). Berries swell as they reach maturity (Veraison).

September:

Final preparations for vintage continue, the winery equipment will be cleaned and serviced.

Grapes will be tested regularly for sugar content , usually with a refractometer.

Harvesting.

The Vintage
The sugar content of the grape increases as the acidity decreases as it ripens. The grower can pick early to maintain acidity in hot years, or delay picking to optimise sugar levels, but with reduced acidity.

When the grapes reach a desirable level of maturity the vintage will begin, though impending unfavourable weather conditions may have to be taken into consideration.

By hand or machine are the options for harvesting, the choice being made depending on the type of wine to be made, the financial consideration and topography. Smaller producers may have a problem with being able to machine harvest because of the considerable financia;l investment involved. Some get around this by sharing a harvester with other small growers. The benefits are speed and flexibility including the ability to harvest at night if necessary. Machine harvesters work by shaking the vine and collecting the ripe berries which fall off, leaving the stalks behind. Taking all the ripe berries from the vines whether healthy or not is not selective and is only feasible on gently sloping or flat dry land. Manual harvesting is slower, labour intensive, and inflexible. It does though allow for a great deal of selection for the grapes: unripe or rotton grapes can be left on the vine or conversely, only botrytized fruit selected for dessert wines. Whole bunches are harvested thus less damage can occur to the grapes. They are picked with the stalks , so it is essential for wines like Lambrusco bianco and Champagne where colour from the skins is unwanted. Hand picking can be done in all terrains; indeed, steep vineyards , such as the Northern Rhone, the Mosel and the Douro, can only be harvested by hand.

From now, the work moves from the vineyard to the cellar.

Major Grape Varieties

Aligote
Mainly grown in Burgundy where it produces the Bourgogne Aligote. Its an early ripening grape. The wine is made for early drinking and is generaly high in acidity. It is a high yielding grape and widely planted in Bulgaria.

Chardonnay
Jancis Robinson has described this grape as the happiest of all combinations and has expanded widely from it's Burgundian roots, being now planted virtually world-wide. It grows best in chalky soil but may be subject to chlorosis and powdery mildew. The yields are moderate and the wine can lose it's character when they are pushed too far. It gives wines that normally age well in wood, which gives it a round buttery flavour.

Chasselas(Dorin,Fendant,Perlan (Switzerland)
Mainly cultivated as a table grape in France. Lesser wines are made from it in Alsace, Pouilly-sur-Loire and Sovoie (Crepy). Under a selection of regional names it is a major variety in Switzerland. It gives a high yield and a light wine.

Chenin Blanc (Steen[South Africa]
The interesting grape is capable of producing a broad range of wines from the bone dry to the great sweet Loire wines of Bonnezeaux and from Quarts de Chaume. It is also widely planted in South Africa and California. As might be gathered, it is liable to botrytis.

Gewurztraminer
This grape gives a distinctive spicy wine with hints of exotic fruit (lychees particularly). Although native to northern Italy it's at it's best in Alsace. It is widely grown in Australia (where it is blended with Riesling), New Zealand and California. It is also found in eastern Europe. It can also give excellent botrysized wines.

Muller-Thurgau
This is now one of the most widely planted grape varieties in Germany. It is a cross between Riesling (the other parent is not certain) and possibly Silvaner or another Riesling clone. It gives high yields of generally undistinguished wines. This has led to it's uprooting in New Zealand in search of higher quality.

Muscadet(Melon de Bourgogne)
Originally a Burgundian variety. It is alsmost solely grown for producing the dry white Loire wine of the same name, a rather neutral flavoured, crisp wine. Apparently, much of the Pinot Blanc grown in California is actually Muscadet.

Muscat
A number of different Muscats are grow around the world. THeyhave one thing in common; they give wines, often fortified or sparkling, with an intensely grapey taste. the best come fromthe Muscat Blanc a Petits Grains, but this is particularly sensitive to mildew and gives low yields. Of its poorer relatives, the best known is probably the muscat of Alexandria.

Palomino
The major grape for Sherry production, at it's best on chalky albariza soils. The grapes are high in sugar and low in acidity. The variety is also widely planted in South Africa.

Pedro Ximenez
This grape gives exceptionally high yield of grapes with high sugar levels though, it is a sensitve vine which is susceptible to disease. It's a major variety in Montilla and widely planted in Argentina. In sherry production the grapes are dried, so the sugars are concentrated and the resultant wine is used for sweetening purposes.

Pinot Blanc(Clever[Alsace], Weissburgunder (Austria), Weisser Burgunder(Germany), Pinot Bianco (Italy) Long confused with Chardonnay, this vine is still grown in small pockets of Cote d' Or. It is more common in Alsace, where plantings have increased for the production of Cremant. It's also found in Italy. It gives good yield of fresh, fruity, simple wines.

Pinot Gris (Tokay-Pinot Gris [Alsace], Rulander [Germany], Pinot Grigio [Italy]
The grape produces flavourful, almost oily wines rather high in alchohol and slightly low in acidity. Probably at it's best is Alsace, where the bunches in the best years, are left to be affected by botrytis. In Italy, particulary Fruili, the wines tend to be more neutral in character.

Riesling:(Rhine Riesling, Johannisberg Riesling [New World], Weisser Riesling [South Africa]. A major variety, widely planted around the world. It produces the classic wines of Germany, particularly in the Rheingau and Mosel vineyards. The best wines have high acidity with a minerally, peachy or petrolly aroma; however the vine's hardiness makes it ideal for late-harvest wines. In Germany it produces relatively low yields of about 65hl/ha. It's name has been widely adopted , particularly in newer vineyard areas for varieties that have little to do with the true Riesling, e.g. Laski Riesling , Hunter Valley Riesling, Cape Riesling.

Sauvignon blanc (Fume Blanc[New World]
This is a classic grape variety grown widely in Bordeaux, the Loire Valley (Sancerre and Pouilly-Fume) and the New World. It is prone to rot and should be planted in poor soil. It is generally used to produce dry wines with marked acidity, either with or without oak aging, but is also an important part of Sauternes, where it is used to add acidity to the blend. It tends to have a distinctive herbaceous, green, vegetal taste.

Semillon
The grape often shows it's best in a blend, archetypically in Bordeaux with Sauvignon Blanc. It's often responsible for great sweet wines because it's susceptible to botrytis. This grape can be found planted around the world

Silvaner(Sylvaner[Alsace]
The popualarity of this grape has declined from the most widely planted in Germany. It is capable of making great wine on some exceptional vineyards but for the most part it's main characteristic is acidity. It is widely planted in Alssace and the South Tirol, and is capable of big yields , but is susceptible to frost damage.

Trebbiano (Ugni Blanc, Sait-Emilion [France]
The most common white variety in both Italy and France, where it produces dull wines , some of which , due to their acidity, are ideal for distillation. It also is widely found in Australia. Thick skins make it resistant to rot, though it is susceptible to downy mildew.

Welschriesling (Riesling Italico [Italy], Lasko Rizling [Slovenia] This not related to the true riesling. It is widely planted in central Europe and Northern Italy, where it appears to adapt to all manner of soils and gives big yields of easy to drink wines.

Black Grapes

Barbera
This is the most common wine variety in Italy. It's at it's best in piedmont. It has also been widely planted in California . It ripens late and thrives on poor chalky soils. It gives a big yield of wines which are generally fresh and acidic and should be drunk young.

Cabernet Franc
It's considered a subsidiary grape in Bordeaux. Also it's responsible for Chinon and Bourgeil and the les fashionable Cabernet Rose d' Anjou, in the Loire Valley. It is also planted in eastern Europe. There are some plantings in California. It accepts wetter soil than the Cabernet Sauvignon and higher yields. Unblended, the wine has a stalky redcurrant flavour.

Cabernet Sauvignon
It is great vine of the Medoc in Bordeaux and is widely planted throughout the world including Chile, Australia, California, and Bulgaria. The grape has perhaps the widest reputation for the production of red wines. it buds late , lessening thr danger of damage from spring frosts, the grape-bunches are loosely formed, and the grapes are thick-skinned, have a high yield to pulp ratio and are resistant to rot and insects. It has a low yield. Because of the nature of the grape the resultant wine is full-bodied and tannic, with a blackcurranttaste, and ages well.

Carignan (Carinenea, Mazuelo, [Sapin], Carignane [California]
This is now the most widely planted in France though originally it came from Spain. It is susceptible to fungal diseases and is capable of high yields of poor wine on the plain. On the slopes , the yields are smaller with and quality proportionately higher.

Gamay
Historically this Burgundian grape was widely planted in the Cotes d' Or and condemmed for it's high yields and poor quality. Now it's heartland is Beaujolais, where it produces it's finest wines on granite soils. It's also grown in Touraine and the Ardeche. The wine should be drunk young, and will have a fruity (cherry,rasberry,) flavor and purplish tinge.

Grenache (Garnachia[Spain], Cannonau[Sardinial])
It originates from Spain where it is the most widely planted red wine grape. It is the main grape in Navarra and is a constituent of Rioja. Also it is widely planted in the Southern Rhone valleyand the South of France, and is found in California and Australia, particulary the McLaren Vale region. As a constituent or by itself, it is responsible for many great rose wines and is used in blends of such great red wines as Chateauneuf-du-Pape and Rioja. in this guise it benefits from oak-aging. Grenache have a tendency to oxidise early and can be highly alchoholic. The grapes are susceptible to mildew.

Merlot
This grape is the dominant one in Pomeral and Saint Emillion and the overall second great black grape of Bordeaux. In the United States it has become very fashionable and as a result there have been widespread plantings in Clifornia and the South of France. It also succeeds in New Zealand. It is most likely at it's best when blended with Cabernet Sauvignon. It is resistant to oidium but suffers from downy mildew and grey rot. As a wine, it has a round , rather soft fruitiness and low tannin. It matures relatively quick.

Nebbiolo (Spanna)
This classic red grape produces the great Italian wines of Barolo and Barbaresco from the chalky soils of Piedmont. It gives wines high intannin and acidity, at their best after long ageing in cask. The taste has been described as "tar and roses".

Pinot Noir(Spatsburgunder[Germany], Pinot Nero [Italy]
No grape can have created such a great reputation from just one region as the Pinot Noir has from Burgundy. Although it is planted around the world, nowhere else, with the possible exception of parts of Clafornia, does it create perfect wines. There is a broad range of clones of this variety, and the best have to be selected to produce the finest wines. The yields are small ; it demands well drained soil and is liable to both mildew and rot. These factors may present too much of a problem for all but the most exacting grower. At it's best it gives wine whose flavor is a "summer pudding"selection of soft red fruits. When ols, the wine can take on a particular aroma of rotting vegetation.

Sangiovese (Brunello)
This variety is one where clonal selection show's it's true merits. It is widely grown in Italy. At it's best, its rich fruit is responsible for the finest Brunello de Montalcino; at it's worst , for many of the truly sad wines that one can find in Italy. It is now blended with Cabernet Sauvignon to prduce some super Tuscan wines.

Syrah (Shiraz[Australia]
When grown on poor soil it is one of the world's great grapes. Responsible for the great reds of the Northern Rhone it is also being grown throughout the South of France to improve blends. In Australia it is frequently blended with Cabernet Sauvignon. It gives full, heavy, deeply fruited wines with a hint of blackberry.

Tempranillo (ull de Liebre,Cencibel,Tinto del Pais [Spain], Tinta Roriz [Portugal]
This grape is widely planted throughout the northern half of Spain and is the dominant grape in quality Riojas. It is also planted in Portugal and Argentina. It ripens early and likes chalky soil. It has a nose of Morocco leather, and tastes and overripe strawberries.

Zinfandel
California's distinctive grape variety, whose origins are now thought to be in Italy (the Primitivo?). It is capable of giving a broad variety of styles of wine from the ubiquitous White Zinfandel to late picked Californian "ports".

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