It’s the Function That Matters
A Text
Analysis from Functional Perspective
PGDELT 2001 HUANG XIN
1.Introduction
Functional Grammar (FG)
is “ a way of looking at grammar in terms of how grammar is used.”(Martin, J.
R. etc. 1997). It actually provides a framework in which language users may be
insighted into such concepts that can help them to observe and describe the
language by focusing on the functions. In fact, the functional interpretation
of the language user not only inspires language researchers to have a better description
of the nature of language but also encourages language educators to try a new
way in pedagogy. Thus, Functional Grammar has become a widely spread
theoretical notion as well as a practical method in language learning and
research.
2.Basic Concept of Theme in FG
In Functional Grammar,
Halliday (1994) introduced the notion of “clause”, which is quite different
from that of the traditional grammar. To Halliday, a “clause” is regarded as a unit,
which carries on meanings of three different types, namely textual,
interpersonal and ideational (experiential). In other words, “clause” is a
message structure. He further points out that, as a message structure, a clause
consists of a Theme accompanied by a Rheme. Although the two terms were borrowed
from the terminology of Prague School of linguistics, Halliday (1994) used them
to mean that, in his own words, “The Theme is the element which serves as the
point of departure; the remainder of the message, the part in which the Theme
is developed, is called the Rheme.” So, the Theme is the starting –point for
the message, and it is the ground from which the clause is taking off. To put
it another way, Theme carries on the information which has been given in the
previous text or in the shared background knowledge of human beings; while
Rheme aims at describing and explaining the new information which is defined in
the context or topic introduced by Theme. Theme provides a kind of frame for
the interpretation of the rest of the message.
In the chapter entitled “Clause
as message” of his profound classic work “Introduction to Functional Grammar”(Halliday,
1994), Halliday specifically described Themes of different types. To make a
summary of his classification, we may say that there are two general types of
Themes, one Simple Theme, and the other Multiple Theme. A general description
of this classification can be illustrated in the following tables:
Theme |
Function |
Class |
|
Unmarked |
Subject |
Nominal group Nominalization |
|
Marked |
Adjunct |
Adverbial group |
|
Complement |
Nominal group |
Metafunctions |
Components of Theme |
|
Textual |
Continuative Structural (Conjunction or
Wh-relative) Conjunctive (Adjunct) |
|
Interpersonal |
Vocative Modal (Adjunct) Finite (Operator) Wh- (Interrogative) |
|
Experiential |
Participant Circumstance Process |
Notes: The typical ordering of Multiple Theme is
Textual
^ Interpersonal^ Experiential (Topical)
(Halliday, 1994)
The notion of Theme is
not a technical one. The significance of Theme-Rheme structure lies in that:
(1) it is concerned with the ordering of information, which decides the focus
of information; (2) it contributes to the development of text. By selecting different
ways of thematization , language users can more effectively exchange
information on different language levels.
In the following section
of this short essay, I will try to apply the theoretical notion of Theme-Rheme
structure to make an analysis of a piece of authentic text. The aim of my
analysis is two-folded: one is to identify the thematic features of the clauses
in the text, the other is to explore through the Theme-Rheme structures in
order to explain how the text is developed.
3. Text Analysis: A Functional
Perspective
3.1. Text Selection
I selected 3 paragraphs
of an article in “Newsweek”, which was published in a “ Special Issue” in
December 2001-Februrary 2002. The article itself is a long one consisting of 8
paragraphs. Due to the limited space of the present essay, only the first 3
paragraphs were selected to make up an independent text for the purpose of
analysis.
As a whole, the original article
is an argumentative piece of writing. The purpose of the author is to argue for
a solution to the issues of human future and world peace after the terrorist
attacks in the U.S.A. and other parts of the world in 2001. The general
structure of the article can be briefly outlined as in the following 3 parts: (1)
in the first part (the first 3 paragraphs), the author reviewed the history of
the recollections of social conflicts since the Second World War; (2) in the
second part (the following 3 paragraphs), the author tried to induce that we
human beings should learn some lessons from the history; (3) in the final part
(the last 2 paragraphs), the author focused on a logical reasoning about the
issues and came to a conclusion.
From this structural
outline, we can see that the paragraphs I choose as a text for analysis
actually form a review or a recount. In the following section, I will try to
analyze how the text is developed in terms of thematization.
3.2. A Detailed Analysis
A close observation
allows us to subdivide the 3-paragraph text into 2 parts. The first part is made
up of paragraph 1 & 2. In this part, there are 8 clauses. So, 8 Themes can
be observed. Among them are 6 Simple Themes and 2 Multiple Themes. Further,
there are 5 unmarked Themes and only 3 marked Themes. The second part of the
text is actually the third paragraph. There are 9 clauses, thus 9 Themes of
which 5 are Multiple Themes and 4 are Simple ones. And, strikingly, only 1
Theme is marked with the other 8 being unmarked.
3.2.1. Part 1
As we know, the thematic organization of the clauses is the most significant factor in the development of the text. In the first part of this text, all the 5 unmarked Themes refer to the participants, which simultaneously function as the subjects of the clauses. We can also find that these Themes as participants are all related to one same range of topic, namely that of “my” personal experience and that of the generation “I” belonged to. By thematizing the subject “I” and other things related to “ I” or “my” generation, the author will be able not only to achieve the continuative of narration but also, more significantly perhaps, to provide the reader with a sense of authenticity for his review. The thematization would imply that the author is expressing his true feelings or experiences, which would abruptly stimulate an echo or reflection in the mind of the reader who may share a similar life background. Thus, thematizing the first person pronouns “I” or “We” would create an appropriate atmosphere and posit the reader in a situation in which both the author and the reader may find a common topic-- the future of human beings and the world peace. The Themes assist the author in establishing a close relationship with the reader and provide possibility for further discussion on the topic which has been focused.
More striking
is the selection of 3 marked Themes, which refer to the location both in time
and place. Actually, the effect of the selection is to scaffold the text
through settings in time (as opposed to sequence in time which would be handled
by conjunctions) and place. This is a method intentionally chosen by the author
to deal with longer spans of time that cannot be handled in detail—of history.
A further point I would like to suggest on the selection of the Theme in the
last clause of the 1st paragraph is that the author intends to restrict the
location of all the events reviewed here to a specific place—Europe. Another
explanation might be that the present selection of Theme would provide a
possibility for the author to shift from his personal experience, which should
be located in a more specific place on the continent of Europe, to a more
general one of all the people in Europe. Thus, an implied generalization can be
achieved by this marked Theme.
Before going on to the
analysis of the 2nd part, further discussion should be briefly made on the 2
Multiple Themes in the 2nd and the 3rd clauses. In the above discussion, I have
covered the effect of the Topical Themes in these 2 clauses (“and” and “but”).
Although it is not a striking feature that the author selects 2 Textual Themes
in the whole context of the 1st part, it is useful to identify them as the
structural type providing local links of addition and contrast.
3.2.2. Part 2:
A striking feature which
can be observed in terms of thematic development in this part (paragraph) is
that the subjects in the 8 clauses are all selected as unmarked Themes. They
are Topical Themes as participants. However, the topic of this paragraph is no
longer focused on the information from a personal perspective of the author.
There is a shift of topic. And the shift is successfully achieved by
thematizing the time setting into the subject in the 9th clause. In the clauses
that followed, the thematized subjects together provide a glimpse of overall description
of the “ remarkable achievements”. The subject of the 16th clause is thematized
to echo the thematized subject of the 11th clause, thus functioning as an
enclosing circle of topic. In this circle, all the other subjects are
thematized to illustrate the examples of those “remarkable achievements”. By
selecting subjects as unmarked Themes, the author successfully puts the text
moving from a general description through specific exemplification, then back
to a reinforced general view.
Compared to the 1st
part, another striking feature is that more Multiple Themes come into stage.
The Multiple Themes in clauses 10,11, 13 and 15 each consists of a textual
component and a topical one. The textual component in clause10 functions to
create a contrast. And the textual component of clause11 is expected to provide
a concession as well as a contrast. The other 2 textual components in clause13
and 15 serve as an addition to the Given Information. Salient as it is, the
only one interpersonal component in clause16 serves not only to present the
personal attitude of the author, but also to allow for the shift of topic to
next paragraph.
A final point to put
forward here is the selection of marked Theme in this paragraph. Actually,
there is only one marked Theme in the whole paragraph. It serves to locate the
time setting. In addition, it can also be interpreted as a method to enable the
recurring of the information, which has been referred to in the 1st paragraph.
Thus, the concept that has been established in the previous paragraph will be
reinforced and strengthened.
4. Summary
So far we have made a precise analysis of the thematic development from a functional perspective. An analysis like this has two aims. One aim is to show why the text means what it does. The other is to show why it is valued as it is. The two aims can be achieved in different ways. And my analysis is only a try of one version which demonstrates my own comprehension of the concept of Functional Grammar.
|
Text |
Top |
|
Top |
recollections of the conflict itself are vague. // (3) But I remember what it was
|
Top |
|
Text |
Top |
like to grow up on a continent devastated by war. // (4) In the
first decade of my life,
|
Top |
some 55 million people died in the fighting. // (5) More than half of them were civilians.//
|
Top |
(6) In Europe a whole way of life was destroyed.// (Paragraph 1)
|
Top |
(7) In my teens I worked in the German-French Youth Movement, a binational
|
Top |
organization designed to rebuild trust and friendship between young people in our two
nations. // (8) We were a new organization determined to build a foundation of
|
Top |
understanding that would prevent a repeat of the wars that had torn Europe apart and cost
so many lives. // (Paragraph 2)
(9) The years since 1945 have, of course, tempered the optimism of my postwar
|
Top |
generation. // (10) But the determination of those of us who grew up in the ashes
|
Text |
Top |
of World War 2 to create a better world has produced some remarkable achievements. //
|
Top |
(11) Though the planet is not at peace, // (12) a United Nations now facilitates conflict
|
Text |
Top |
|
Top |
resolution, // (13) and international courts bring war criminals to justice.
|
Text |
Top |
// (14) A World Trade Organization helps build commercial bridges between and among
|
Top |
trading partners. // (15) And in my native Europe, a Common Market, a European
|
Text |
Top |
Union and now even a common currency have all contributed to increased cooperation
and regional harmony. // (16) As troubled as our world has become since September 11,
|
Inter |
Top |
// (17) it ’s probably fair to assume that few people in my generation would
|
Top |
trade 2002 for, say, 1942. (Paragraph 3)
(Source: Page 83, “Newsweek” Special Issue, December 2001-February 2002)
Notes: 1.The clauses are marked in numbers by “ ( )”.
2. The clause boundary is marked by “//”
3. Abbreviations: “Top” refers to “Topical Theme”
“Text” refers to “ Textual Theme”
“Inter” refers to “Interpersonal Theme”.