Nowadays, men nervously gnaw their lips when they see women dressed in business suits, drinking better coffee, and getting their promotion. Men blame it on "feminism"--the ideology that appears to empower today's women and elevate them to extraordinary heights. What are these men grumbling for? It wasn't always this way. In fact, until the twentieth century, most women were stuck inside their houses as homemakers, or servants in somebody else's house (Nolan-Lenski 248). And that is pretty much all that ever became of them. But the times have changed and the tables are being turned. Read for yourself how women's status and treatment have dramatically changed in the last century.

The main changes for women came in the form of greater domestic freedom, improved economic independence, attainment of widespread literacy, and increased political and organizational power.

In the last 100-150 years, the industrialization has unleashed women within the family. Unlike marriages in the pre-industrial times arranged by parents for economic benefits, marriages today are considered an individual's choice to fulfill another personal goal such as having children, etc. Most people now view a marriage to be the "union of a man and a woman who are attracted to one another both physically and emotionally and hope to find pleasure, comfort, convenience, and companionship by sharing their lives"(Nolan-Lenski 312). Because the necessity of marriage for economic dependence (see next section) no longer exists, women are delaying family life to their convenience. Women, since the 1970's, have been marrying and bearing children at an older age (Gazette: Women, work, and family in America). In the past there was pressure to bear a large brood of children due to high infant mortality. But due to improved nutrition, reduced exposure to disease, medical measures, and the invention of sterilized bottle-feeding, infant mortality has declined and population replacement now poses few constraints on women's work (Huber 117). As a result, the average woman has spent less time in pregnancy and breastfeeding (Huber 118), which opened up avenues for new roles outside of the family.

In the past, women were economically dependent on their men; this has changed drastically over the last century. According to Huber, "Today men like their wives to work for pay." This may be because of a curious 50% drop in men's income over the years(Gazette), but also because women have become more productive outside the family and have proven over time their own ability to carry the income burden. In a recent study, 60% of all American women were found to be employed outside the home(Nolan-Lenski 318). This trend has been the result of increased domestic freedom due to declines in infant mortality and fertility (see previous paragraph). Another reason for this rise in the working woman is the technological innovation of household devices(vacuums, washing machines, dryers, frozen food,etc) that greatly cut down on time formerly consumed by housekeeping. Bottlefeeding (described previously above) and birth control also freed married women to seek formal employment (Nolan-Lenski 316-318). Womens' job options have opened up as well, in general, occupational sex segregation in the workplace have decreased in all categories except for private household worker and machine operator. In 1970, 67% of all women had to change jobs to achieve occupational parity with men. Now, only 50% would have to do so (Gazette). Although there are "traditional" jobs for women, women have been transcending these conventions and climbing up the corporate ladder to the managerial ranks in the recent years because of increased equality within society. As a result, womens' full-time wages have risen to 75% of men's wages in the last 50 years (Gazette) due to this increased equality of the industrial world. The one setback is that family life and economic independence for women are competing forces. Often, the demands of a full-time career have taken priority over marital and parental obligations. This may be caused by the percieved liability of children in the industrial age(Gazette), or simply because the lure of monetary self-sufficiency is too difficult to resist.

One reason that women are able to undertake career expansion is their increased access and completion to higher education. According to Nolan-Lenski, women now earn the majority of bachelor's degrees and nearly half of all doctorates. Women, as of 1998, make up 22% of those 25 years and older who graduated from college, compared to males at 26% (Gazettes). Women who graduate from college have a marked advantage in advancing in the working world. Huber states,"The higher a woman's level of educaton, the more likely she is to be employed" (118). Thus women are becoming more qualified to move into upper-management ranks based on their educational attainment. However, the majority of top executive positions in corporations and institutions are still male. This implies possible discrimination in the work place against women based on gender--a keystone issue that fuels modern feminism.

In the early 1800's, women had zero political power. Most senators on Capitol Hill are men, as are all the presidents we have had in history. However, the future of women in the political arena looks brighter. Apparently, while there was zero governers, only one senator and eleven House