Black Sand Basin

History

By Rocco Paperiello

[ Black Sand Pool ] [ "Boiling Egg Pool" ] [ Brown Spouters ]
[ Cliff Geyser ] [ Cucumber Spring ] [ Demon's Cave ] [ Emerald Pool ]
[ Green Spring ] [ Hankerchief Geyser ] [ Hankerchief Pool ] [ KelpPool ]
[ Marsh Pool ] [ Opalescent Pool ] [ Pentagonal Spring ] [ Ragged Spring ]
[ Rainbow Pool ] [ Specimen Lake ] [ Spouter Geyser ]
[ Sunset Lake ] [ Whistle Geyser ]

[ Unnamed Geysers and Springs 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 ]

Black Sand Pool:

The name of Black Sand Geyser was given to this feature by the 1871 Hayden Survey, and A. C. Peale, in 1878, continued its use. However, by the late 1880s, the name of “Black Sand Spring” was one people were using.

At the same time, the name “Black Sand Basin” was being used to describe the area including “Black Sand Spring” and the extensive overflow basins (Specimen Lake) below the spring. (The name “Sunlight Basin” was being used for the area of springs along Iron Spring Creek, the main portion of today’s Black Sand Basin). Some confusion developed when the name of “Black Sand Basin,” by at least the late 1800s, was being used also by some for the “Black Sand Spring.” [Whittlesey 1988]

Arnold Hague used the name “Black Sand Spring” in his unpublished manuscript “The Geyser Basins” [circa 1911]. The usage of the names “Black Sand Basin,” “Black Sand Spring,” and “Sunlight Basin” continued in this fashion until the latter 1920s. Then, in 1927, the Yellowstone Park place names committee made Black Sand Pool the name for the spring, and the name Black Sand Basin to encompass the entire area from the spring itself to those west of Iron Spring Creek. The name “Sunlight Basin” was dropped. [RNM 1928]

For most of its history, this pool has been quietly overflowing. Discharge was much greater in the past causing the buildup of a series of overflow pools called Specimen Lake (see below) which occupied the gently sloping area below the main pool. In 1878, A. C. Peale described the pool as follows:

Periods of violent boiling were noted occasionally through at least 1929. [E.J.B. 1929, J. Thomas Stewart, Jr. 1929]

Rare periods of geyser activity for Black Sand Pool were noted in 1895, 1950, and for a while after the 1959 earthquake. [Whittlesey 1988, Marler 1950, 1973] In early August 1895 “the water in Black Sand Pool [was] much agitated and . . . turned to milk white . . ., and [on August 9th] the pool . . . turned into a genuine geyser . . ., throwing up water to a height of from 15 to 20 feet about every 10 minutes. [Whittlesey 1988]1

At least one more eruption was seen on September 3, 1950. [Old Faithful logbook]

Minor geyser activity followed the August 17, 1959-earthquake. “During the weeks that followed the earthquake, at 5-minute intervals, steam detonations at depth could be heard and felt. This was followed by momentary boiling and marked increase in discharge, [then ebbing]. These geyser characteristics persisted throughout the 1960 and 1961 seasons.” [Marler, Inventory. . .]

Another interesting fact concerning Black Sand Pool is its apparent connection to distant Giant Geyser. Two days before the eruption of Giant on September 7, 1978, the water of this pool turned murky gray. In addition to Black Sand Pool, a number of the non-overflowing pools in the Daisy Group turned a murky rust-color at about the same time. [Wolf]

Specimen Lake:

During the first few decades of the park, this feature was one of the more popular in the Upper Geyser Basin. Everyone went searching for “specimens” to bring home as souvenirs, and this was a favorite collecting place. Almost without fail, the early accounts spoke of visiting the Specimen Lake, which was formed by the runoff from Black Sand Pool. Even as early as 1873, Henry Norton, in his guide book, recommended this area to visitors:

In 1878, Dr. Peale was evidently very impressed by both Black Sand Pool and the area which would soon acquire the name of Specimen Lake:

In the Ninth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey to the Secretary of the Interior 1887-’88, we find a long article written by Walter Weed [1889] entitled “Formation of Travertine and Siliceous Sinter by The Vegetation of Hot Springs.” The water from “Black Sand Spring,” took a prominent place in his description of how the formation of siliceous sinter was greatly accelerated by the presence of the jelly-like “algae” (recognized today as bacteria).2 The use of Specimen Lake in this study by Walter Weed was commented on by Arnold Hague in his unpublished manuscript “The Geyser Basins” (circa 1911):

Where the name of Specimen Lake came from is not known. The first time that it appears is as a caption on one of the earliest stereo-slides produced by Frank Haynes in 1881. In 1890, Frank Haynes wrote in his first guidebook (later to become the Haynes Guides):

The Ranger Naturalist Manual [reflecting conditions observed in 1926] stated:

It is clear from both early descriptions and photographs that Specimen Lake was comprised of a series of small shallow basins, spreading to a considerable distance below Black Sand Pool. This condition does not exist today. Sometime after the turn of the century, discharge from Black Sand Pool had apparently declined, causing Specimen Lake to largely disappear. Until recently, the water merely flowed down the shallow slope in a series of shifting rivulets. Interestingly, just over the past few years (1994-1997), the discharge from Black Sand Pool has increased enough to allow the rebuilding of at least a small upper portion of a “new” Specimen Lake.

Demon’s Cave:

This name first appeared in an 1882 guide book by W. W. Wylie. In another 1883 guide book, Herman Haupt wrote:

This was probably the spring shown as “Cave Geyser” on one of Gustavus Bechler’s 1872 maps. Captain J.W. Barlow [1872] described it in 1871 as having “its cavity extending beneath the surface of the ground in the form of a cavern.” According to George Marler [1960], this spring was stimulated into eruptive activity by the 1959 earthquake, but had no further eruptions.

Concerning more recent activity we have the following observations by Scott Bryan:

Pentagonal Spring:

This spring is easily overlooked, but it lies just to the right of the entrance road into Black Sand Basin. It was so named by Walter Weed in 1884 from the spring’s five-sided shape. [Whittlesey 1988] Unaware of any previously given name, Ansel Hall called it “Cerulean Spring” in 1926, and gave the following description:

Thus the mystery of the “Cerulean Spring” references in Allen & Day [1935] is solved. I have not been able to find out what “Zinnober” could have meant to Hall (perhaps cinnabar), but his description would fit today.

Opalescent Pool:

This pool is located northwest of Spouter Geyser. Though not shown by A. C. Peale [1883], Walter Weed [circa 1884] drew it in on his map as spring #26 of the “Emerald Group,” and described it only as a warm pool with a soft border. [Whittlesey 1988] This spring is the “Algal Pool” of the Haynes Guides, and the “Black Sand Opal” found in many of George Marler’s reports.

On occasion, and under the proper lighting, this pool can be very photogenic. In 1957, naturalist Herbert Lystrup climbed to the top of the nearby Madison Plateau ridge and stated that this “pool revealed an opalescent azure as lovely as the sky above.” [Whittlesey 1988]3

Spouter Geyser:

This spring was labeled “Small Beehive” on Bechler’s 1872 “Map of the Upper Geyser Basin,” along with its description as a “constant spouter.” Yet, on another of his 1872 maps, “Map of the Upper and Lower Geyser Basins,” Bechler labeled this feature “Boiling Pond.” In 1878, Peale [1883] named it the “Great Spouter,” and by 1887, Arnold Hague had apparently shortened this name to the “Spouter.” In 1884, photographer F. Jay Haynes took pictures of this geyser under the name “Iron Spring Creek Geyser,” and by 1899 park tour operator G.L. Henderson was referring to it as the “Double Wave Spouters.” [Whittlesey 1988]4

Early descriptions of this geyser gave intervals of about 2 to 3 times as long as durations. The interval Weed logged in 1883, was 2 hours, with one duration of 45 minutes. [Weed 1883, Vol. III] The maximum height given was usually between 3 and 10 feet. [Hague 1883, Weed 1883, 1887, 1897] This very active geyser has no known dormant years, although, in February 1927, it was reported to have remained “dry” for a number of weeks. [MRofS 1927]

Walter Weed’s early accounts describe only 2 vents; however, there is a third vent outside of the main basin. Its small third vent (the one closest to the road) was later to acquire the name of the “Grumbler.” It was named from the sound it makes by park tour operator G.L. Henderson in or about 1899, and erupts simultaneously with Spouter Geyser to heights of 1-2 feet. [Whittlesey 1988]5

By 1926, the durations of Spouter Geyser’s eruptions seems to have been longer than in the 1880s. The following is from the 1926 from Ranger Naturalist Manual:

The sign at the Spouter in late 1926 read in part: “The eruptions last for several hours, occasionally even for several days, the pool becoming totally empty for about an hour between eruptions.” [Hall 1926]

Various reports from the 1930s through the 1940s, show some very widely varying durations usually from about a half hour to several hours. In 1950, Marler described durations of 8 to 10 hours, being active 90% of the time. This type of activity seemed to typify the 1950s, and 1960s. Then in the 1980s some changes occasionally took place. In 1982, Sam Holbrook, who monitored it all summer, came to the conclusion that “it appeared to be drained most of the time and erupting for relatively short periods each day.” In 1986, durations of 1 to 3 hours, with intervals of 2 to a little over 5 hours were recorded. [Bohman 1986] In 1987 recorded durations and intervals averaged 3 hours 20 minutes and 5 hours 57 minutes respectively. [Landis 1987] The one duration and interval recorded by Landis in 1988 were 1 hour 56 minutes and 4 hours 5 minutes respectively. [Landis 1988]

In 1993, Spouter Geyser had an average interval of about 5 hours with extremes of 2 hours 26 minutes to 7 hours 13 minutes. The durations ranged from 50 minutes to 4 hours. [Keller 1996] In 1996, however, durations of about ½ to 2 hours and intervals of 2 to 5 hours predominated. This trend of increased interval and decreased duration continued in 1997, with the geyser being active well less than ¼ of the time.

Unnamed Geyser:

This spring lies directly across the road from Spouter Geyser within a log fence enclosure. Its large irregular vent lies along an obvious fracture line. The hard gray sintered basin attests to its long presence as a hot feature, but only in 1976 was it ever noted as an active geyser. [Martinez 1976]

It was noticed by Mike Keller and his wife Cynthia in 1993 and 1994 that when Spouter Geyser was erupting, the water level in this geyser basin was 6 to 8 inches lower than when Spouter was inactive.

Unnamed Geyser:

The position of this small geyser is difficult to locate unless it is actually seen in eruption. The following is a report by Mike and Cynthia Keller:

Brown Spouters:

This small group of spouting vents, northwest of Opalescent Pool, was given the name Brown Spouters in Walter Weed’s 1887 notebook (page 7 & 8). The description given by Walter Weed in an 1883 notebook, could very well have been written a century later:

According to Scott Bryan [1995], either one of these vents, or one close by, is a geyser [BSB-5], with frequent activity of 3 to 10 feet in height.

Kelp Pool:

(The following text is from Lee Whittlesey). This spring “is located on the right (east) bank of Iron Spring Creek several hundred yards below Sunset Lake. It runs into the creek and is shaped like a long trough.

“This low temperature, elongated, spring appears to have been named in 1888 by geologists Arnold Hague and Walter Weed for its algous growths which resemble kelp (a greenish-brown seaweed). Weed stated that year that Kelp Pool was 100 feet long, and 20 to 30 feet wide with a temperature of 122.5º F. “Arnold Hague used Kelp Pool as a reference point for some of his geological descriptions in 1891.” [Whittlesey 1988]6

Marsh Pool:

***need to find location *** ENTRY NOT COMPLETE***

Cucumber Spring:

This name was given by George Marler in 1959:

This spouting activity to about a foot or so continued through the 1960s. In 1969 a steam explosion ended its life and it is now merged with the spring. [Marler 1960, 1961, 1962, Whittlesey 1988]

In 1878, A. C. Peale described this spring as “a very handsome oblong pool of greenish-tinted water, with an overhanging white scalloped rim. There is a boiling center at the back of the spring.” Its given depth was 6-7 feet. This spring was previously named “Black Ledge Spring” by Walter Weed [1887] and at that time measured 11½' by 43'.

Whistle Geyser:

This geyser was originally labeled “Conical Spring” on both of Bechler’s 1872 maps [“Map of the Upper Geyser Basin” and, “Map of the Upper and Lower Geyser Basins”], but this was most likely meant only as a descriptive epithet. A. C. Peale, of the 1878 Hayden Survey, left it unnamed in his report, although he suspected it was a geyser. Walter Weed, in 1884, heard the “very loud roar” of its steam phase, and knew it to be a geyser, but neither he nor Arnold Hague, the next head of the USGS after Hayden, gave this feature a name. Its first known name, that of “Hazle[sic] Fairy Mound Builder,” given in 1899 by park tour operator G.L. Henderson, was never widely used. [Whittlesey 1988] Not until the 1912 Haynes Guide do we see the name of “the Whistler,” which was soon transformed into its present name.

Prior to 1900, reports about this geyser were scarce. In 1878, A. C. Peale [1883] wrote: “The basin was empty when we saw it this year, but the water could be heard boiling far below in the tube, and there is no doubt that it has periods of spouting, although the column may not be projected to a great height.” I would consider this evidence of a recent eruption. In his 1883 report, Walter Weed noted a full basin “the water being in vigorous ebullition.” [#3899-C, Volume III, 1883, page 6] And then in 1884, Walter Weed recorded the only described eruption before 1900:

At about this same time, the newly revised 1912 edition is the first of the Haynes Guides to mention this geyser and give it a name:

I think it entirely possible that this name was given by Jack Haynes himself. A number of editions later “the Whistle” became Whistle Geyser.

We do not find any new mention of Whistle Geyser erupting until the early 1920s. In a 1923 “lecture” on the Upper Geyser Basin, Landsdowne wrote the following based on observations during 1921 and 1922:

This is corroborated in part by the report of a specific eruption noted for August 27, 1922 at 8:00 a.m. [Bound Volume # 189]

Throughout the remainder of the 1920s there are specific records found of only 5 more eruptions. Two eruptions occurred in 1924. [MRofS, Aug 1924] Then, on July 28, 1926, the “Whistle Steam vent whistled at five twenty p.m.” [Martinsdale, Upper Basin Ranger Station Report of July 31, 1926, Box W-121 #3] There was one eruption recorded for 1927, that on August 21. [MRofCR, Aug 1927, Philip Martinsdale Box W-73, see also MRofS, Aug 1927] And finally, there was at least one eruption in 1929, in the early part of August: “Crater dry for one day following eruption then filled slowly.” [E.J.B. 1929 card file]

But there are a few hints of more than this one eruption for 1929. The following terce reports (all for 1929) are from the old card files: “Eruptions infrequent. . .” [E.J.B. 1929] “Height of eruptions now only 10-20 ft.” [E. A. F. 1929] “Have never seen it play in 4 seasons for more than 20 feet usually less.” [P. U. 1929]

In 1926, Charles Phillips wrote the following in his article on the Upper Geyser Basin for the 1927 Ranger Naturalist Manual:

This would seem to jibe with the meager scattering of reports as seen above. However, from the recently discovered manuscript by Ansel Hall [1926] entitled “A Report on the Permanent Educational Improvements at Upper Basin, YNP, Wyoming, Made in the Season of 1926” we find out that a new sign then erected at Whistle Geyser bore the following legend:

WHISTLE GEYSER

Unfortunately, no other known report found can corroborate this activity of “once every four weeks.”

In the 1930s there are only 4 or 5 known eruptions. According to Thomas “Geyser Bill” Ankrom, a noted geyser gazer, “the Whistler . . . was in action several times during the [1931] season. . .” But only two specific eruptions could be found in the record for that year -- the first of these in July:

This eruption was publicized in a park memorandum. Interestingly, we find that the sign at Whistle Geyser in 1931 read that it was “an extinct geyser” and incorrectly claimed that it had not erupted since 1927:

“Memorandum for the Press” 1931-- 97

Another of the “several” eruptions of Whistle Geyser for 1931 occurred on August 2nd. A “Mr. F. D. Ritter [of] Beverly Hills, Calif. observed [the] eruption at 4:30 P.M. [It played water to a height of] 50 ft. for 5 minutes. [A] violent steam period [lasted] for at least 30 minutes.” [Lystrup, Aug 1931 card file]

In 1934, one eruption of Whistle was recorded. “It erupted to a height of 50-60' on August 3. [A] sharp roar [was] heard ½ mile away at Black Sand Pool and Black Sand Hill by [the] road crew who saw the play. I saw only steam and [a] dry crater at 9:00 A.M.” [F. Oberhansley 8/3/34, card file] This eruption was reported in the Bozeman Courier, Aug 24, 1934. “So violent was the eruption that a crust of vari-colored algae was blown off the formation.”

The next recorded eruption, that in 1937, occasioned the following article by Philip Fix:

“Whistle Geyser”
by
Ranger Naturalist Philip F. Fix

The eruption “was witnessed by Mrs. Robert Beets and party from Saginaw, Mich. This party witnessed the eruption at 6:15 P.M. 8-30-37.” [Lystrup Aug 31, 1937]

There may possibly have been as many as 9 to 11 eruptions of Whistle Geyser through the 1940s. There was one recorded eruption in July of 1945. [RofND, July 1945] The reports of activity of Whistle Geyser from 1946 through 1950, are all from George Marler, but there are unfortunate contradictions. In his 1973 Inventory. . ., Marler claimed that there was ONE eruption of Whistle in 1948, and this was “the first that [Marler was] aware of.” Yet in three other sources, all written by Marler himself, this is contradicted. In his own typewritten preliminary geyser report for 1946 the name Whistle (and a few others) were later inserted by hand in the typewritten table of active geysers for that year. These insertions were made by Marler himself (his handwriting was very distinctive).

Then in the very next year, Marler wrote a 24-page article entitled “Are Yellowstone Geysers Declining in Activity,” in which he recorded:

But we are not yet quite through. The following is found in a letter from George Marler to Jack Haynes, dated April 12, 1951, concerning suggested changes for Haynes’ guidebook:

Of Marler’s reports for these 3 years, only in his 1948 report is Whistle shown as active. (I suspect that these 5 witnessed eruptions could date back to 1947). At least the eruptions in 1947, and 1948, are partly corroborated by other reports. The July 1947 Report of Naturalist Division has:

And for 1948:

Determining the activity of Whistle Geyser during the 1950s is also not without problems. According to Marler’s Inventory. . ., Whistle erupted once in each of the years 1954, 1955, and 1956. But his yearly reports show Whistle active only in 1954, and 1956, while he believed that two additional eruptions, the one on August 31, 1951 and one in 1955, were the result of the geyser being soaped. [Marler 1951, 1954, 1955, 1956, and BYU notebook for 1951] In addition, the 1956 Old Faithful logbook recorded 4 eruptions for Whistle that year: June 30 at 7:35 pm, July 19 at 5:45 pm, Sept 8 at 1:30 pm, and Sept 19 at 2:00 pm, with intervals of 19, 51, and 11 days.

The year 1957 was even better than 1956 for Whistle Geyser. According to Marler’s notebook for that year, there were EIGHT eruptions (not 7 as written in his 1957 annual report and 1973 Inventory. . .). The eruptions occurred on May 10th, June 12th & 25th, July 17th & 30th, August 19th & 29th, and finally on September 4th. The seven intervals were respectively 33, 13, 22, 13, 20, 10, and 6 days. [Marler 1957 handwritten notebook, BYU] Marler’s report for that year stated:

After the 8 eruptions of 1957, the next eruption of Whistle was not until August 13, 1968. According to the Old Faithful Log Book entry that day by Ranger Hollis, the eruption started at 1:30 p.m. The water phase lasted 7 minutes, and reached a height of 40 feet. The steam phase (or “whistling” phase as reported) lasted 47 minutes. Rocks were thrown out during the first 15 minutes. This eruption came a little more than a year after drill hole Y-1 was put down to a depth of 214.6 feet, just a short distance from Whistle Geyser.7

This deepening of one portion of the geyser’s rim is not evident today, and a seeping discharge is now seen on only rare occasions.

Perhaps the 1959 earthquake altered some underground heat source. Whatever the reason, Whistle Geyser, which only erupted once in the 1960s, did not erupt for the next 22 years -- so that the eruption of July 1, 1990 came as quite a surprise. There were two more eruptions the next year, one in mid-May and the other on July 18.

The July eruption was witnessed by Clark Murray. He wrote:

As noted with some of the earlier eruptions, the pool took about 2½ days to refill.

At a very conservative estimate, a yearly list of known eruptions of Whistle Geyser may possibly look like this:
1878 1 1931 2+ 1951 1
1884 1 1934 1 1954 1
1910 2+ 1937 1 1955 1
1911 3+ 1945 1 1956 4
1921-1922 2+ 1946 1 1957 8
1924 2 1947 4+ 1968 1
1926 1 1948 1+ 1990 1
1927 1 1949-1950 1+ 1991 2
1929 2+ ----
Total 47+

Will Whistle Geyser erupt in the future? Who can say for sure? According to Don White of the USGS, Whistle Geyser “is probably near the end of its eruptive activity.” And Marler stated that “it might be nearing the stage of a sealed-in unit.” But how long does it take for this self-sealing to take place? And is this the actual reason for the (apparent?) decline of Whistle Geyser? Perhaps both of the above interpretations are wrong. I agree that the mound of Whistle definitely took many years to form. But this moderately eroded hard geyserite mound has more the look of a slightly overflowing spring rather than that of a geyser. I believe that it is more probable that this geyser has NEVER had any history of frequent eruptive activity. I think it more likely that the history seen over the past hundred years, is similar to its past history. Its apparent lack of eruptive activity is possibly more due to a lack of sufficient thermal energy. Perhaps momentary shifts in thermal energy, cause periods of eruptive activity. These infrequent upswings of thermal energy characterize almost the entire Black Sand Basin as a whole. Cliff Geyser, Ragged Spring, Green Spring, Rainbow Pool and Sunset Lake have all experienced such on-again-off-again years of activity, and (except for Cliff Geyser), with inactivity predominating. If my interpretation is correct, I would expect this geyser merely to repeat past historical performance. I would suggest that occasional periods of activity (perhaps a few years in duration) with one to several eruptions a year, will occur about every one to two decades. (Of course this is assuming that the 1959 earthquake did not unalterably change the region’s plumbing).

“Boiling Egg Pool”:

This spring lies about 60 feet ENE of Whistler Geyser. This name was given to this spring in recent years by members of the USGS. [Don White, Whistle, “A Nearly Dormant Geyser in Upper Geyser Basin, YNP, Wyoming: The First Geyser to be Studied by Research Drilling,” 1990]

Unnamed Spring:

There is another vent near Whistle Geyser and immediately north of “Boiling Egg Pool” that is sometimes a small subterranean spouter to a few inches. [Keller 1996]

Cliff Geyser:

Minor eruptive activity for this spring was noted as early as 1878. It was then spring #14 of A. C. Peale’s “Emerald Group”: “18 by 23 ft. . . . 189º. . . on the bank of the creek at a bend, and its basin rises from the water’s edge. The water has an inky tinge over one orifice, and at the other the basin is grayish white. The border is corrugated, with a gray edge and yellow beaded silica on it. The main orifice bulges at short intervals.”

This geyser was named by Arnold Hague. In an 1884 report (commenting on work done in 1883), he wrote: “I have also to add one new geyser to those reported in the Upper Basin. It is situated in the Emerald Group [Black Sand Basin]. I have named it the Cliff Geyser, as it lies so close under the abrupt wall which skirts the west bank of Iron [Spring] Creek.” [Hague 1884] During this same summer Walter Weed, Hague’s assistant, described this spring as follows:

In his notes for 1886, Hague noted that Cliff Geyser “was not playing this year. The blue pool which has built up such a fine circular mound extending out into Iron [Spring] Creek, is well deserving a name.” [August 4, 1886 notes]

In his unpublished 1911 manuscript, Hague wrote:

It is also apparent that Walter Weed had (at least for a number of years) misunderstood to which feature Arnold Hague had given the name of Cliff Geyser. In both his 1883 and 1887 formal notebooks, Weed used the name Cliff Geyser for today’s Rainbow Pool. Perhaps this occurred since it was Rainbow Pool which had suddenly become a major geyser in 1883, with eruptions seen to as high as 50 feet. (See under Rainbow Pool). In his 1887 notebook, Weed had given the name of “Fortress” to today’s Cliff Geyser.

Over much of its known history, eruptions of Cliff Geyser have been uncommon, yet beginning with the first edition in 1890 (under the pen name of A. B. Guptill, Frank Haynes’ accountant), the Haynes Guides’ tables gave Cliff Geyser’s height as an amazing 100 feet, with interval 4 to 8 hours, and duration of eight minutes. (These same statistics were carried in every edition through 1919). This error very possibly occurred because of the major eruptive activity of Rainbow Pool in the 1880s. Major activity is definitely known for 1883, and is probable for 1894. (See Rainbow Pool below). One might speculate that the name of “Cliff Geyser” was associated with this major activity since Walter Weed thought Rainbow Pool was Cliff Geyser, and since he was placing name boards at some of the geysers. In spite of what was found in its geyser table, the 1912 Haynes Guide stated more correctly that “Cliff Spring usually is boiling violently, and though credited by some with having occasional eruptions, it is usually considered to be only a spring.”

The history of Cliff Geyser can generally be divided into 2 periods -- that before June of 1975, and that after June of 1975. Before 1975, only in 1941, 1950, 1958, 1959, 1963, 1965, 1966, and 1967 did Cliff Geyser have any known periods of frequent eruptions.

In fact, after 1902, the next known recorded eruption of Cliff Geyser was not until June 19, 1921. [Box W-73] In late 1926, the newly erected sign at the feature read:

From the late 1920s through the 1930s eruptions remained uncommon:

And then suddenly a much greater frequency of eruption, previously unknown for Cliff Geyser, occurred in 1941 (not in 1939 as written in Marler’s Inventory. . .)8 For 1941, there are at least 4 reports, 3 by Marler himself, of major eruptions, as high as 60 feet, with durations as much as 3 to 4 hours. One report for July stated that “Cliff Geyser, which has been dormant for the last 3 years, has been erupting regularly at 3 day intervals for the past 30 days.” [Box 90 MRofCR OF Dist July 1941 John Bauman]

Again, Cliff appears to have gone back to its usual pattern. It was not observed to erupt at all in 1945. [Lystrup 1945] For 1946, the eruption on July 28th was the only one reported for the season. [Marler 1946] Marler, in [1947] merely listed Cliff as active. Three eruptions were recorded in 1949. The durations were all over an hour and a half. [Marler 1949] One of these was an eruption to 50 feet on June 16. [MRofCR Kowski Box 90]

And then in 1950, the promise of Cliff’s eruptive potential, glimpsed at in 1941, was again made known. Marler [1950] reported that “since June 14 the Cliff has played at least once each day. This geyser is cyclic in its performance. During most seasons it is quiescent. An eruption of the Cliff lasts about 2 hours. It is only during the first 20 to 30 minutes of the eruption that the activity is spectacular, being characterized by explosive bursts of water which rocket to heights varying between thirty and fifty feet.”

This “occasional good season” pattern was maintained through 1974, with much more activity in the post-earthquake years. The 1950s generally saw little activity. Only in October and November of 1958 was any regular frequency recorded -- every 3 to 5 days. [McClelland April 12, 1959] Finally, it was the 1959 quake that again reawakened Cliff Geyser. Marler [1959] wrote: “ During 1959. . .2 eruptions [June 16, & June 22] are known to have occurred [prior to the earthquake on August 17]; due to the length of the active phase, 6 to 8 hours, these two eruptions, no doubt represent its total 1959 pre-earthquake activity. As a result of the quake Cliff became far more active than during any previous eruption cycle. . . Almost constant after the earthquake, . . .the eruptions had decreased to 2 to 3 per week by the end of the year. [Marler 1959 report, 1959 Old Faithful logbook]

And so the pattern continued:

One particular occurrence in 1965, detailed what would eventually become Cliff Geyser’s normal function:

It was in 1975, that these dramatic changes occurred in Cliff Geysers eruptive patterns, changes which would continue to the present time. During the early season of 1975, “at least one period of minor activity was observed per day with durations ranging from 9 to 27 minutes.” [Hutchinson 1975 #5] But the type of activity from June 1-7 was fundamentally different and is described in Rick Hutchinson’s 1975 report as follows:

It is curious that this increased activity in Cliff Geyser occurred before the 1975-earthquake.

In 1982, Cliff continued its being in eruption almost half of the time. Eruptions lasted over a half hour and at the end, bursts reached as high as 50 to 60 feet. In 1984, it was active most of the time with 13 to 34 minute eruptions recorded with pauses of only 2 to 3 minutes. Maximum heights were 35 to 60 feet depending on the eruption. In 1986, eruptions of 9 to 16 minutes were most common with occasional longer durations of up to 20 minutes. Infrequently, durations of 3 to 4 minutes were also seen. Intervals ranged from 30 to 45 minutes. [Bowman 1986] In 1987, average durations of 12 minutes and average intervals of 34 minutes were recorded. Many minors of 1 to 5 minutes were also noted. [Landis 1987]

In 1988, both minor and major activity patterns continued. “Major” eruptions had maximum bursts of 25 to 30 feet; durations ranged from about 10 to 22 minutes with an average of 14 minutes. Intervals ranged from about 28 to 39 minutes with an average of 32 minutes. Occasionally “minors” of less than a minute duration occurred between “majors.” By the end of the season both durations and intervals were noted to be a little longer; the occurrence of “minors” was a little more common. [Landis 1988 & author] In 1991, the major eruptions were a bit more powerful with bursts reaching as high as 50 feet, with slightly shorter intervals and durations. [Cross 1991, author] By 1995, a similar pattern was still occurring, with perhaps some longer intervals, and at times bursts could reach as high as 50 feet. [Cross 1995] In 1996, and 1997, a little more energy was apparent, with more forceful bursts and fewer minors. Again in eruption most of the time, there were small pauses of a few minutes occurring between eruptions, with the pool draining. Bursts reached a maximum height of 40 to 50 feet.

Ragged Spring & Unnamed Geyser:

Just after the walkway leaves the parking lot at Black Sand Basin, there lies to the northwest a large collapse basin, which, though a geyser, remains unnamed today. Just beyond is a smaller spring surrounded by a highly convoluted circle of sinter, lying off-center in a roughly circular basin. In a couple old photographs, this spring has been called Ragged Spring.9 Both Ragged Spring, and the now large rift in front, are notable geysers whose activities are commonly closely synchronized. An earlier report by Walter Weed [1883] described this Ragged Spring (then unnamed) as a geyser: “1 ¾' x 2 ½'. Basin 9' x 10'. Spouter with overflow channels, showing recent activity.” The rift in front was much smaller: “Basin in crust 3 ½' x 6' - Water 18" below.

In 1935, this front rift in front of Ragged Spring was possibly inactive and partly filled in. In 1941 it was reported that “the one opening next to the parking area which in 1935 was a sputtering hole of a few inches has increased its activity to where it occasionally plays 15 to 20 feet. . .” [YNN Lang and Replogle] Marler [1973] also noted that the front collapse rift “was not observed to have eruptive activity until the 1941 season. [The eruptive vent] is located on the northwest end of a rift which is about 20 feet in length. On the southwest end of the rift large blocks of sinter bridging the break caved in during the 1930s, which would seem to indicate a greater amount of activity.

This geyser erupts from 12 to 15 feet in height. . . The 1959 earthquake stimulated a greater degree of activity.” [Marler 1973 Inventory. . .] Eruptions of 15 feet from this rift were noted for a couple years after the 1959 quake and in 1975. [Marler 1962, Hutchinson, “Geothermal Activity in Black Sand Basin for 1975,” (type 2p) #5]

Both Ragged Spring and the front rift were relatively quiet during the later 1970s and the early 1980s. But it September of 1984, their true potential was again noted. On September 20th of this year a tourist was startled when a sudden 20' spike erupted from this collapse and got him wet. Activity in both springs was very frequent and definitely synchronized. During the next couple of hours it was noticed that eruptions in Ragged Spring preceded those from the collapse by about 10 to 20 seconds. Eruptions in Ragged Spring and in the collapse rift were of a very cyclic nature with a few eruptions of “major” character scattered throughout much minor activity. Within the next few hours a few eruptions from the collapse sent 2 to 5 spikes of water to heights of 8 to 20 feet. The largest eruptions of Ragged Spring coincided with these and reached heights of about 4 to 6 feet, and were sustained for 20 seconds or more.

In addition to the main vent of Ragged Spring, another, smaller vent, lies a few feet closer to Iron Spring Creek. Though it does not erupt, it does discharge heavily. There are also 4 more “holes” surrounding the large collapse basin in front. There are 3 holes to the west, and a small vent to the north. The larger eruptions of this collapse also send an exploding spout of water obliquely out of the closest of the western holes, and occasionally a small spurt can be seen coming from the vent to the north. That activity like this had been previously uncommon for Ragged Spring was attested to by the fact that great amounts of erosion in the sod and dirt around its basin occurred that season.

Activity tailed off somewhat for almost the next decade. In May of 1993, and during periods of 1995, activity again approached that of 1984. In 1995, when seen, “majors” occurred erratically with intervals from about 15 to 75 minutes. [Cross 1995] In 1996, eruptions of Ragged Spring were again seen close to this same magnitude, but subsequent bursts from the rift sometimes only hit 3 to 6 feet. On January 8, 1997, eruptions of 10 to 15 feet were again seen from the collapse vent in front. Periods of substantial activity was seen at times through the next summer.

Unnamed Spring:

There is an old slightly raised sinter mound about 80 feet west of Ragged Spring. Its vent, about a foot or so across, has been clogged by sintered debris for years. When I first noticed this vent in the early 1980s, it appeared to be totally dormant. But in recent years, a small spouting vent has opened up within the small crater formed within this old vent. It has been active throughout the 1990s. [Keller 1996] By 1996 a small amount of water partially filled the crater.

Green Spring:

Green Spring was shown as “Emerald Spring” on Bechler’s 1872 Map of the Upper Geyser Basin. This map also labeled today’s Emerald Pool as “Great Emerald Spring.” I believe that both were meant as a descriptions only. A. C. Peale [1883] named this spring in 1878. He wrote:

In Walter Weed’s [1883] formal notebook, Green Spring is described as follows:

This “brown tint” has been greatly enhanced only in recent years by the steady accumulation of bison droppings. The greatly increased numbers of these non-native animals have been gradually destroying some of the beauty of the park’s thermal areas in recent years, and in some cases completely obliterating the thermal features.

Over the years, Green Spring has been an uncommonly erupting geyser, with its best eruptions to 25 feet. Eruptive activity is known for at least the following years: 1883, 1934, 1937, 1941, 1949 through 1957, 1959 (the night of the quake only), 1975, 1976, and 1985.

In one of his 1883 notebooks, Walter Weed noted that Green Spring was a “periodic bulger.” I think it is significant that this is the same year that Rainbow Pool was first noted to be a major geyser erupting to 50 feet. In Arnold Hague’s unpublished manuscript “The Geyser Basins” (circa 1911) we see that Green Spring was also well known to Hague as a geyser, in spite of the fact that by 1911, we only have definite record of eruptive activity in 1883:

In 1926, the sign at Green Spring read:

Some activity apparently continued through at least August of that year. [RofND Aug 1934]

Its next known active period occurred in 1937. Herbert Lystrup wrote the following:

Green Spring’s 1941 activity has been well documented. The Sept-Oct YNN reported that Green Spring was “active in August to 12 feet, every 35 minutes, for 4-5 minutes. [YNN Sept-Oct 1941, pp 57-58] In his August 1941 report, George Marler described eruptions occurring “about every one to two hours. Occasionally water domes up to a height of 20 or more feet. The eruptions last about 5 minutes.” [Marler August 1941] From activity seen on August 8, 1941, Ranger Naturalists Lang and Replogle made a study of the cyclic action of the pool. The 5 minute eruptions were of the “fountain [type], the gas explosions being large enough to raise the water to a beautiful mound five to ten feet high over the surface of 100 sq. ft. The play is not constant but intermittent as is the case with normal fountain geysers. Four large plays are usually counted after which the pool resumes an attitude of normal quiescence and a repetition of the cycle.” [YNN Sept-Oct 1941 Lang & Replogle] In his September 1941 report, Marler described intervals of 1 to 3 hours, and noted connections to Rainbow Pool. During “Rainbow’s [previous] period of activity the water ebbed about 18 inches in the Green Spring and the water cooled sufficiently for brown algae to line the basin. During the current season this situation has been reversed.” [Marler September 1941]

According to George Marler [1949], the next period of activity for Green Spring occurred “from July 1 to July 20, 1949. . ., playing several times each day.” Marler noted that “its functioning periods are rare and apparently of short duration. . . An eruption of the Green Spring last from four to five minutes. Its eruptions are fitful, with occasional splashes going about twelve feet high. Considerable water is discharged during the entire period of play.”

For the 1950s, Marler’s 1973 Inventory. . ., states that Green Spring was active at times during the 1950, 1953, and 1957 seasons only. However, in his own annual reports, Marler shows Green Spring active every year from 1950 through 1957. In these reports, Marler gave no other details. However, eruptions were also recorded for Aug 27, 1950, and for Aug 2, 1952 to 15 feet in the respective Old Faithful logbooks.

Except for the night of the 1959 earthquake [Marler 1959], Green Spring was not again active until 1975. Rick Hutchinson reported the following;

It is interesting to note that the 1975 activity erupted from a vent on the north side of the crater, while that of 1937 eruptions came from the west side of the crater.

Green Spring was again active in 1976. [Martinez 1976] Finally, 1985 saw the last known active period for Green Spring. Scott Bryan reported that “early in the season eruptions with long and irregular intervals were occurring. While they lasted as long as seven minutes, the bursts were no more than 3 to 6 feet high.” [Bryan 1985]10

Unnamed Geyser:

This geyser erupts from a small vent in the sinter shield to the east of Green Spring. It lies 30 feet from the edge of Green Spring and about 70 feet from the boardwalk. There are 2 vents on this area of exposed sinter sheet. The geyser is the smaller of the two and the one closer to Green Spring. Its vent is oval-shaped and about 7" by 3". Its sinter basin is about 3 ½ feet in diameter. It was in 1986 when I first noted geyser activity from this vent, but I never could catch more than one eruption on any given day. The eruptions were continuous to about 2 to 3 feet (gradually diminishing), and lasted for a considerable time (well over 10 minutes). Heavy discharge ran down a channel toward the far end of and behind Green Spring. Active periods were again noted in 1989 and 1992.

Unnamed Geyser:

Another unnamed geyser in this area has been noted by Scott Bryan, labeled BSB-2. The vent of this geyser lies. Scott Bryan writes:

Handkerchief Pool:

This pool is located about 12 feet from the southeast edge of Rainbow Pool and in a line with the southwest edge of that pool and the footbridge over Iron Spring Creek. The earliest reference to this pool by name occurs in Olin D. Wheeler’s Wonderland 1902 (a yearly publication of the Northern Pacific Railroad). This reference consisted solely of a photograph of the small pool surrounded with handkerchief wielding tourist along with the caption “Tourists around Handkerchief Pool.” For the next 25 years or so it would become one of the most famous features in the park.

That it was a point of interest well before 1902 can be attested to by an account of Mrs. James Hamilton’s trip through Yellowstone in 1888:

Whittlesey [1988] notes that by 1906, tour guides were telling visitors on their walks that this was the pool where the devil took in washing, and by 1913 the spring was sometimes called the “Devil’s Laundry.”12 By 1910, a description of Handkerchief Pool and its action made its way into the Haynes Guides, but was deleted by the 1930 edition. In an unpublished article by Arnold Hague entitled “The Geyser Basins” (circa 1911), we read:

The 1926 Ranger Naturalist Manual had:

Not only a sidewalk, but for the convenience of the visitor “an iron post with a chain and poker attached was cemented in the rock.” [Whittlesey 1988]13

Exactly what caused the demise of Handkerchief Pool, and exactly when this occurred is a matter of somewhat conflicting reports. A 1926 account by Ira Edwards stated that its action was “not as brisk as it formerly was, for in recent times certain misguided visitors have partially blocked the opening of the spring with pebbles thrown into it. [Whittlesey 1988]14 The Monthly Report of the Superintendent for September 1927 stated that it had “not functioned properly at any time [that] season.” In a 1936 journal, Ranger Douglass wrote that some years ago a visitor had “jammed a log in[to it’s] orifice and broke[n it’s] lips so that convection currents no longer [occurred]. [Douglass 1936 #4, p 12] At any rate it was definitely no longer functioning by 1928. “. . .all efforts to make the Handkerchief work have been made except pumping it out.” [Superintendent Albright 1929] The August 1, 1929 Yellowstone Nature Notes had:

By 1929, great efforts were made to find a “successor to” or a “new Handkerchief Pool.” A pool located near the east end of the footbridge crossing Iron [Spring] Creek, and leading to Handkerchief Pool [about 50 feet north] was suggested to Park Superintendent Roger Toll by Mr. F. A. Stearns. In a letter the superintendent wrote to Director Albright of the National Park Service we read:

This pool was, for a short time, called New Handkerchief Pool, but it never quite measured up to its old namesake. In 1931 it was also noted to be a geyser and was named Handkerchief Geyser. A press memorandum written that year stated:

Today this feature is still called Handkerchief Geyser. (See an additional write-up about this spring below under Handkerchief Geyser).

By 1931, Handkerchief Pool was found “at the beginning of the season [to be] filled almost completely with a columnar algous growth.” [H. Lystrup 1931, vert. files, hand 3pp] During this same year, another replacement for Handkerchief Pool was attempted. In his unpublished 1931 article entitled “Geysers of Yellowstone National Park,” Thomas “Geyser Bill” Ankrom, a well-known geyser gazer at the time, wrote:

In September 1931, Herb Lystrup wrote the following remarkable description and recommendation:

Has been functioning very well all season with handkerchiefs. [H. Lystrup 1931]

In 1932, Lystrup reported that “Jewel Geyser [had again] been functioning admirably all season as a handkerchief geyser. It prove[d] more spectacular than the Handkerchief Pool.” And in a 1933 report Lystrup stated that “handkerchiefs [were] spectacularly thrown out during an eruption.” [Lystrup Aug 3, 1933]

But Lystrup & Oberhansley’s use of Jewel Geyser, eventually, did not go uncontested. A June 19, 1935 Memorandum for Chief Ranger Francis D. LaNoue read as follows:

Appended to this letter in pencil was the following:

Such use of Jewel Geyser as a “Handkerchief Geyser” did so end. On July 1, 1935, Lystrup wrote that Jewel Geyser was “an exceedingly interesting geyser both for its beauty and active manner of play. The formation a few feet East of Jewel has been broken but has not affected the play. The area however is dangerous and the demonstrations with handkerchiefs have been dispensed with.” [Lystrup, July 1, 1935]

During these same years, the old Handkerchief Pool was variously described as being “. . .a small remnant of its former self,” “. . .only about half full of water,” “. . .having strong downward currents,” “. . .not strong enough,” “. . .heating up and discharging,” “. . .with action not as good ,”. . .and so on. [C. Kay S., Jan, Feb 1932, Lystrup, June 1933, Box K-10, ARofED, Bauer 1933, RofND, June 1934] Only for a very brief period in 1933 did it ever again come close to having its “normal function.” Clyde Max Bauer wrote in August of that year:

However, the “New Handkerchief Pool” was thought to still “operate more spectacularly and does carry the handkerchiefs out of sight.” [H. Lystrup 1933]

By 1933, eruptions of Rainbow Pool were washing debris into Handkerchief Pool, and by the next year Handkerchief Pool was just about defunct. [RofND Jan. 1934]

Handkerchief Pool would never again be the attraction it had once been, but it would be brought back to life. From a letter to Superintendent Rogers from George Marler dated November 18, 1950 (page 5) we read the following:

In 1988, a more recent test had been performed, this time by Rick Hutchinson’s assistant, Phil Landis. He reported:

In more recent times, Handkerchief Pool has been seen to have taken on some spouting activity. Minor spouting activity has been seen in at least 1975, and in 1991. [Hutchinson 1975] This activity is usually cyclic in height of play, and at best to only a few feet. For a short time in September 1984, wildly cyclic spouting activity was noted. Continuous spouting of 1 to 1 ½ feet was interspersed by eruptions of 3 to 8 feet in height! Definite geyser activity has been noted for at least at some time during most years from 1980 through 1991. In 1988, eruptions of 8 feet were again seen. [Landis] For a brief time in 1991, eruptions reached 6 to 8 feet. [Bryan 1995]True geyser activity was again noted for a brief time in May of 1996, during a rare eruptive period of Rainbow Pool. By early June Handkerchief Pool became quiet, at about the same time that Rainbow Pool ended its eruptive period. By the Winter of 1997, Handkerchief Pool was again spouting cyclicly to a height of 3 to 8 feet.

Handkerchief Geyser:

This small geyser lies about 70 feet from the south edge of Rainbow Pool and south of Handkerchief Pool. First mention of a Handkerchief Geyser is found in a 1931 memorandum:

This geyser was probably spring No. 10 of Peale [1883]. In 1887, Walter Weed described it as “active.” No more information could be found concerning this feature until recent times. It was usually seen to be active as either a geyser or spouter throughout the 1980s. Eruptions were frequent, and usually reached heights of about 2 to 5 feet. But for a short period in September of 1984, it was seen in constant eruption of 3 to 5 feet, with frequent pulses up to 15 to 20 feet high. Though dormant in 1987, it was again active in 1988. “Intermittent bursts reached about 2 feet in height four minutes into an eruption, and soon after reached 3 - 8 feet in height. . . The overall play was only 2 - 3 feet high about six minutes into an eruption. . . . . .30 minutes into an eruption [the] geyser’s pool level would be 4 - 6 inched below the rim. . . Eruption durations and intervals averaged about 36 m[inutes] and 1 h[our] 51 m[inutes] respectively.” [Landis 1988] It was again active in 1990 [Bryan], but dormant in 1991. In very recent years, its activity has been more that of a cyclic perpetual spouter. In 1995, it was barely reaching 1½ feet, but did somewhat better in 1996, and in January, 1997.

But some time between early January and April, 1997, a new vent “blew-out” immediately southwest and adjoining the vent of Handkerchief Geyser. Handkerchief Geyser was rendered dormant, and activity was transferred to this new vent.

Unnamed Spring:

This spring was apparently formed by a “blow-out” sometime between early January and April, 1997. Its perpetual activity in 1997 to about 1 foot, rendered Handkerchief Geyser, and the “new” unnamed spouter about 90 feet south of Handkerchief Pool, dormant.

Unnamed Spring:

This small crack vent lies about halfway between Handkerchief Geyser and Iron Spring Creek. In April and may of 1997 it was seen spouting to about one foot.

Unnamed Geyser:

About halfway between Handkerchief Pool and Handkerchief Geyser, is a small vent. Usually inactive or a very minor spouter, on unusual occasions it can become a true geyser. This occurred for at least a short period of time in September of 1984, reaching about 2 to 5 feet a number of times a minute. It was a continuous spouter to about 1 to 2 feet in 1995, and in the winter of 1996-97.

Unnamed Geyser:

This very small geyser erupts from a small vent about half way down the steep north sinter embankment above Iron Spring Creek, and about 80 feet downstream from the bridge. The eruptions, as seen in 1985, were very small and brief. It was again seen active in 1990.

Unnamed Spring:

There is a relatively new spring about 90 feet or so south of Handkerchief Pool and just south of the present boardwalk. It formed on a long fracture which runs south toward Emerald Spring. The following 1933 report described this same fracture:

During the mid-1980s, a number of places along this tight fracture would show some minor spouting activity. During the summer of 1988, the activity along this entire fracture was heating up again. Some spray was escaping from the northern end of this tight fracture which at the time ran under the boardwalk. By April 1989, a small boiling pool had opened up on this fracture and was spouting. Part of this pool ran under the boardwalk and one support was resting only on boiling water. This problem was reported to the visitors’ center. They hurriedly corrected this potentially dangerous situation in about a month, when part of the boardwalk was finally moved to the north.

In 1995, this vent was vigorously spouting from a pool about 6 feet across and to a height of about 3 feet. In May of 1996, it was highly cyclic in activity, at a time when nearby Rainbow Pool was also active. It would at times burst up to 4 to 6 feet for minutes at a time, and then quiet down for a long period of time to about 1 to 3 feet. This extreme cyclic activity ended at about the same time that Rainbow Pool ended its period of geyser activity in early June of 1996. Its 1 to 2 foot spouting continued into January, 1997. However, sometime between early January and April, 1997, the blowout of a new vent immediately southwest of Handkerchief Geyser, apparently coincided with the dormancy of this spring.

Unnamed Geyser:

Several small springs can be seen in the flat area south of the boardwalk as you walk from Rainbow Pool toward Emerald Pool. Several small eruptions were observed from one of these springs during the summer of 1997. It is situated about *** feet from the boardwalk and about *** feet *** of Emerald Pool. This spring lies in a sintered basin

***entry not complete***

Emerald Pool:

Originally labeled the “Great Emerald Spring” by Bechler in 1872, I believe that this was meant only to be descriptive, not a name -- he also labeled today’s Green Spring “Emerald Spring.” Later Peale [1878] used Emerald Spring as its name, (and changed Emerald Spring to Green Spring). Arnold Hague wrote the following in (circa) 1911:

A 1927 park superintendent’s place names committee accepted the name Emerald Pool to perhaps prevent confusion with a feature at Norris called Emerald Spring. [Ranger Naturalists’ Manual 1928, p.144]

Its deep green color, created by the blue of the water combining with yellow of the bacteria growing in its bowl, has drawn the eyes of visitors from the first days of the park. The view from the hillside above is quite worth the climb as you look down into a number of large springs whose colors are all different.

Visitors of 1912 were told by their tour guide that Emerald Pool received its name because an Irishman fell in and was drowned here. Emerald Pool was called “Amethyst Pool” by an 1890 visitor who saw the yellow in it. Curiously, this spring was the site of a fictionalized murder story in the early 1950s.[Whittlesey 1988]

In 1962, a pumping operation was set up at Emerald Pool. George Marler wrote the following in his annual report for that year:

Rainbow Pool:

In June of 1932 an Assistant Park Naturalist, George Crowe, [June 1932] made the statement that due to recent eruptive activity and hotter water, Rainbow Pool “no longer [had] the rainbow effect afforded by the algae in previous years.” Nowhere in either Walter Weed’s or Arnold Hague’s notes of the 1880s does the name of “Rainbow” appear. But in 1894, Isidor Rothschild used the name of “Rainbow Lake” in her account of her trip through the park. [Whittlesey 1988]16 It is not known where this name came from but it quickly came into wide usage, suggesting that by at least 1894 there likely was a sign board in place. And this was commonly done by Walter Weed, Arnold Hague’s assistant. Hague wrote the following (circa) 1911:

The present form of the name, Rainbow Pool, first appeared in print in the 1912 edition of the Haynes Guide.

Evidence of the connection between Rainbow Pool and Green Spring has been known for years. But it was not until 1995, that a connection between Rainbow Pool and Sunset Lake was definitely established. During the course of that year Sunset Lake was having near unprecedented eruptions -- very frequent heavy bursts of 10 to 25 feet with a heavy discharge of water. What was unusual was not just the size of the eruptions, but that such activity continued unabated for more than a year. By June of that year, Rainbow Pool had lowered 1½ to 2 feet below overflow (along with Handkerchief Pool).

Strangely, Walter Weed, in both his 1883 and 1887 formal notebooks called this feature Cliff Geyser! Yet there is no doubt that Arnold Hague gave the name Cliff to the present feature in 1883. (Weed named today’s Cliff Geyser, “Fortress” in his 1887 notebook. Further still, the 1904 Hague Atlas. . . also misplaced the name of Cliff Geyser onto today’s Rainbow Pool). Perhaps Walter Weed misunderstood to which feature this name was given especially since it was today’s Rainbow Pool which proved to be a major geyser this same year (1883). Weed [1883] wrote:

Another early eruptive episode of Rainbow Pool may have occurred in 1894. The following is an excerpt from the Livingston (MT) Post, Aug 30, 1894:

“New Geyser in the Park”

Though undoubtedly an exaggeration, it is entirely possible that this is an account of another early eruptive episode of Rainbow Pool. There are no more eruptions recorded for Rainbow Pool until the 1930s. The newly erected sign at Rainbow in 1926 merely read:

Other years with noted geyser activity include 1932, 1933, 1935, 1938, 1939, 1942, 1943, 1945, 1946, 1947, 1948, 1949, 1967, 1973, and for a few weeks in May of 1996.

Through June, July, and August of 1932, Rainbow Pool was frequently seen erupting to heights of 5 to 10 feet. [George C. Crowe, June, August 1932, RofND July, 1932] “On the morning of July 22nd, it became more active than ever. It plays every 4 or 5 minutes to a height of 10 to 15 feet, and then about every 20 minutes to a height of 40 feet. Just before the play, waves pulsate from the center outward and huge bubbles burst into the true eruption.” [Aug 3 Lystrup]

Periods of frequent activity were again noted in 1933, with reports of minor eruptions of 6 to 10 feet with about 5 to 11 minute intervals. On June 16, a 35-foot emption was seen, and again on July 22, it erupted to 30 feet, [Thomas Ankrom], and to 60 feet on July 25. [Lystrup J-A 1933 YNN] Later in the season Clyde Max Bauer [1933] reported that it was erupting “to a height of 30 feet every 20 minutes.” No activity was seen during November. [Childs 1933]

Rainbow Pool remained dormant through 1934, and some of its color returned. [RofND Aug 1934] Though active as a geyser again in the summer of 1935, it was very infrequent and irregular [Lystrup June, July 1935] -- that is until September. From the 19th through the 24th, (and probably beyond), eruptions of 15 to 50 feet occurred about every 5 to 20 minutes. The walks that surrounded the pool were “badly washed.” [George A. Walker 1935] [George A. Walker 1935, RofND, Sept 1935]

The year 1938 saw some of Rainbow Pool’s most impressive activity. Cylde Max Bauer started calling it Rainbow Geyser. Activity was first seen on June 8th, then on the 17th, then played every day (at least once) through the end of the month. On the 25th it played to 60 feet. Marler [June 1938] reported that it was “a fountain type of geyser and beautiful to behold. Immense waves roll out from the bursting of the water in the center of the crater. The waves wash over the sides of the pool the heavy discharge being down the path leading to Iron Creek.” In July, intervals decreased and size of eruptions increased. Marler’s July report had the following:

In August 1938, “Rainbow Geyser [was] not. . . as predictable. . .” Intervals were similar, but overflow periods had less regularity. “The eruptions never last[ed] less than 30 minutes. The general duration of play [was] about an hour with an occasional longer period of play.” [Marler August 1938] At its best, this summer Rainbow Geyser reached heights of 40 to 80 feet [one eruption to over 100 feet], with durations of ½ to 2 hours, and intervals of 3 to 5 hours. [Attachment of handwritten changes to geyser tables to letter (1 page plus attachment) from Jack E. Haynes to Dr. Clyde Max Bauer dated October 29, 1938, Marler May, 1938]

One of the park’s Memorandums for publication dated August 6, 1938 included the following:

"Boiled "Kerchiefs Pop Up"

Yellowstone Geyser erupts linen lost in Extinct Neighbor.

Activity continued through much of 1939. “[In May]. . .the eruptions [were] more infrequent than last summer, . . .[and] quite distinct from last season [with] a continuous overflow into Iron Creek.” [Marler, May 1939] Marler reported the following in his September 1939 report: “During the current season the Rainbow, due to a constant overflow during its quiet phase, has not been as spectacular as last year. The eruptions this year seldom exceed 20 feet in height while one or two explosions during each eruption last season would go 50 and 60 feet in height.” By June of 1940, it was found that Rainbow Pool had since returned to dormancy. [Marler June 1940]

In spite of what is written in some of the 1950s’ and 1960s’ editions of the Haynes Guide, Rainbow Pool was not active again until May of 1942.18 Green Spring again ebbed with its temperature lowering 30 to 40 degrees. [Marler May 1942] Eruptions in June occurred every 2 to 3 hours with heights of 30 to 40 feet. [Marler June 1942] Activity continued through the rest of the summer. Smaller eruptions were sometimes frequent, with occasional larger eruptions of 15 to 20 feet, and less common ones of 40 to 70 feet. [H. J. Brodrick]

“District Ranger Bauman saw the only [known eruption of Rainbow Pool in 1945] during the latter part of May. He estimated the height at about 65 feet.” [Lystrup 1945] Smaller eruptions only were noted in 1946, with heights of 10 to 15 feet, and active one or more times a day. [Marler 1946] In 1947, activity was not noted until July 15. “On this date for several eruptions it played quite spectacularly. After the first few hours the magnitude of its eruptions began to subside, with boiling and discharge occurring frequently. [“Are Yellowstone Geysers Declining in Activity,” George Marler, 9/17/47] Through the rest of 1947, and into 1948, only small eruptions of less that 10 feet were observed. [Marler letter to Jack Haynes, April 28, 1949] But again on July 22, 1948, Rainbow Pool “put on a violent series of eruptions, tossing out large pieces of sinter and causing the waters of the area to be highly turbulent.” [RofND July 1948] Eruptions were further recorded for July 23, 24, 25, 27, 29, and August 3. On the 23rd, intervals were as short as 15 minutes and as long as 55 minutes. [Old Faithful logbook] Rainbow Pool was reported active again from September 29 through at least October 20 with intervals of 3 ½ to 4 ½ minutes. [MRofCR,OFD Sept, Oct 1948 Box 90 Frank Hirst] “These eruptions [were] not violent and there [was] only an occasional spectacular spout to any great height. There has been lots of sinter broken loose and the entire terrace around the old Rainbow Pool has a devastated look with the huge chunks of sinter strewn over it.” [RofND, Oct 1948] There was another “active eruptive phase for the better part of [the] winter” of 1949. [RofND, Apr 1949]

Coinciding with a “good year” for Cliff Geyser, Rainbow Pool next reactivated as a geyser in 1967. [Marler 1967] (No other description is available).

In 1973, a “few days prior to May 11th and on the night of August 21st, Rainbow Pool had major eruptions. Much sand and gravel size sinter and a few larger slabs and blocks were thrown out.” [Hutchinson 1973]

Only very infrequent episodes of minor eruptions were recorded from 1973 through 1995. On June 1st, 1975, Rainbow Pool had occasional splashes from a couple of minor vents to a height of 3 to 4 feet with moderately strong wave action in all directions. [Wolf 1975] Minors of 1 to 3 feet were again seen in 1981, and in 1984. [Wolf 1981, Paperiello 1984]

During 1995, Rainbow Pool very gradually dropped in water level all year as Sunset Lake experienced unusual eruptive activity and much greater discharge. This finally proved that there indeed was a connection between these two features. By mid-Summer, Rainbow Pool was down about 2 feet.

In 1996, Rainbow Pool had major activity for the first time since 1973, unfortunately no one actually saw it. One report had the following:

Rainbow Pool’s last known series of eruptions in 1996 occurred on May 30th. The first eruption reached about 10 feet and was about 10 feet wide. It lasted about a minute. Rainbow Pool then dropped several inches below overflow and Handkerchief Pool also dropped. Follow up eruptions occurred at 50 to 60 minute intervals each growing weaker. [Clark Murray 1996] Rainbow Pool, although remaining hot with heavy overflow, has not erupted since (1998).

Unnamed Geyser:

The vent of a small geyser lies at the edge of the present boardwalk between Sunset Lake and Rainbow Pool (on the Rainbow Pool side ). It was seen active to a few feet in 1990.

At the end of July 1992, this geyser was erupting “every few minutes to 1 meter. Durations varied from a few seconds to over a minute.” [Cross 1992] In 1993, it was active with intervals of 4 to 6 minutes, and durations of 30 to 90 seconds, with height of 1 to 3 feet. It was active in the spring of 1994, but was dormant and cold (64°F) by August. It was inactive in August of 1995, and buried by debris from Rainbow Pool’s eruptions in 1996. [Keller 1996] The vent is now (1997) very difficult to find.

Sunset Lake:

Lt. G.C. Doane described this spring in 1870 as “a lake of Bluestone water, a hundred feet in diameter.” On both of Bechler’s 1872 maps this spring was labeled “Great Hot Basin.” Later in 1878, Peale used this descriptive title as a name, and also described “bulging” eruptions:

In his 1886 notes, Arnold Hague was using the name “Sunshine Pool,” and in 1887, Walter Weed was using both “Hot Lake” and “Sunshine Lake,” and gave its dimensions as 137 by 150 feet. This latter name is the one found in Hague’s 1904 Atlas. . . By 1897, Walter Weed started using the name of Sunset Lake. (The earlier guide books used the name of Sunlight Lake for this spring, and Sunlight Basin for the entire area west of Iron Springs Creek, but by 1910 the names of the area were presented as they are today).

In about 1911, Arnold Hague wrote the following:

Though the 1910 Haynes Guide explicitly claimed that Sunset Lake never erupted, Sunset Lake has been known to have long active periods of frequent minor geyser activity, especially in recent years. Relatively unknown, however, is the fact that major activity to as high as 60 feet has also been recorded!

Two to 15 foot eruptions of Sunset Lake were noted in July of 1932. The highest seen in August was 6 feet. [H. Lystrup card file & George C. Crowe, RofND, July 1932] In 1933, “during the early part of the season, eruptions were noted at fairly regular intervals (14 - 25 minutes). Maximum height -- 60'.” [L. W. C. card file 1/1/34] Minor activity was again reported in 1937 [Phil Fix card file], and again in 1941 [YNN Lang and Replogle]. Sunset Lake also erupted the night of the 1959-quake. [Watson 1961] But minor eruptions were not seen again until 1963. “Most of the surges were about 3 feet high but at times one would rise 8 to 10 feet. The surges occurred about every 2 to 3 minutes. During 1963 there were some days when no activity was observed.” [Marler Inventory. . .] Similar activity occurred in 1967, 1968, and again in 1975. [Marler 1967, 1968, Hutchinson 1975]

From 1976 to 1990, minor eruptions were commonly seen. However, in August of 1981, and again in September of 1984, eruptions of 30 feet or more were finally again noted. These larger eruptions had a sustained “Artemisia-type” fountain, in addition to its frequent bursting activity, which on this date was easily reaching as high as 10 to 15 feet. In 1985, activity was again much reduced with some bursts perhaps reaching 15 feet. [Bryan 1985]

With few exceptions, this diminished activity continued through much of the next decade. In 1991, eruptions as high as 10 to 15 feet were again seen, but only on occasion. [Cross 1991, author] Sunset Lake was barely active in 1994, but the activity in 1995 was unprecedented in that such sizeable performance lasted for so long a time. Eruptions to 15 feet were seen in the winter, and activity increased as the year progressed. In fact, activity, similar to that seen of 1981, and 1984, gradually lowered the level of Rainbow Pool -- thus for the first time confirming a connection between these two pools! Series of burst usually of 10 to 15 feet were commonly seen, with an occasional series reaching as high as 25 feet. A couple unusual spikes to about 35 feet were seen on rare occasions. Though not the “Artemisia-type” as seen in 1984, it was still truly impressive.

In May of 1996, there were some interesting developments in Black Sand Basin. The ongoing bursting type eruptions of Sunset Lake had diminished a little bit from the previous year, but probably of more importance, there were now periods of a few minutes to well over 30 minutes in which the activity of Sunset Lake was characterized by only infrequent small boils which barely sent waves to the edge of the pool. This activity coincided with a few rare major eruptions of Rainbow Pool and quite a few minors occurring over a few-week period. But in early June, soon after the eruptive activity ceased in Rainbow Pool, so did that in Sunset Lake. For the next couple months the largest activity was minor boiling over one or another of its vents. The pool had cooled enough so that you can actually see into its depths. Eruptive activity resumed toward the end of August but ended again sometime in the fall. In January 1997, Sunset Lake was still quiet. During the following summer, occasional eruptive periods were recorded with eruptions of 3 to 10 feet occasionally seen.

Thanks to T. Scott Bryan who supplied some new information and a number of helpful comments after reviewing this text.

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