Parks - 1992 Protected Areas of the World: A Review of National Systems

Area: 299,765 sq. km

Population: 62,413,000 (1988)

• Natural increase: 2.28% per annum

Economic Indicators: GNP US$ 630 per annum

Policy and Legislation
The 1987 Constitution mandates the state ownership of all natural resources, which includes fisheries, forests or timber, wildlife, flora and fauna and other natural resources. Furthermore, it has ordained that the boundaries of forest and national parks must be marked clearly on the ground and there after be conserved and neither enlarged nor diminished except by Act of Congress (PAWB, 1991).

The 1990 Philippine Strategy for Sustainable Development (DENR, 1991) is the outcome of a series of broad consultations between the government, NGOs, the business and academic sectors. The Strategy has been endorsed by the Cabinet, and includes a clear commitment on the behalf of government to establish protected areas as the principal instrument for conservation (WWF, 1991). Ten strategies are promulgated, with the aim of addressing the issues of environment and development in the Philippines. These are: the integration of environmental considerations in decision making; proper pricing of natural resources; property rights reform; establishment of a national integrated protected areas system; rehabilitation of degraded ecosystems; pollution control; integration of population concerns and social welfare in development planning; inducing growth in rural areas; promotion of environmental education; and strengthening citizen's participation. However, the Strategy itself lacks a clear mechanism for funding and implementation (Roque, 1991).

The legal basis for protected areas is complex and since 1900 there have been at least 262 enactments. These have been in a variety of forms, such as Republic acts, proclamations, administrative orders, executive orders, Presidential letters of instruction and others, mostly relating to the establishment or modification of protected areas. In a number of cases enactments have been overlapping or inconsistent, or have not provided sufficient information for a protected area to be accurately delimited. There has been a marked tendency to issue amending enactments which has lead to further confusion. Thus, for example, the legal and administrative status of Quezon Memorial National Park can only be ascertained by reference to at least 12 enactments. Another difficulty arises from overlapping legislation. For example, Presidential Decree No. 389 clearly indicates that the protected areas system comprises national parks, national recreation areas, national historic parks, national seashore parks and national marine parks. Nevertheless, enactments have not used these terms in any clear or consistent manner. Furthermore, this decree was subsequently amended by Presidential Decrees nos. 705 and 1559, although without reference to a national system. It is, therefore, unclear whether the entire Presidential Decree No. 389 has been repealed, or merely amended in an undefined manner (NRMC, 1983). An analysis of laws and enactments pertaining to national parks prior to the 1986 revolution is given in NRMC (1983). Forest land use legislation, including that relevant to protected areas, is analysed by Natividad (1987).

Protected areas were first established during the US administration, with the enactment of Executive Order No. 33 on 25 April 1910 establishing the diminutive Rizal (Dapitan) National Park. The first formal protected area legislation was Act No. 3915, "An Act for the Establishment of National Parks Declaring such Parks as Game Refuges and Other Purposes", passed on 1 February 1932. The Act came into force on 1 January 1934 in Forestry Administrative Order No. 7 (National Park Regulations) which provided regulations for the establishment, supervision and special uses of national parks. Act No. 3915 describes national parks as "a portion of the public domain reserved or withdrawn from settlement, occupancy or disposal under the laws of the Philippine Islands which, because of its panoramic, historical, scientific or aesthetic value, are dedicated and set apart for the benefit and enjoyment of the people of the Philippine Islands". A more contemporary definition of national parks is given in the Forestry Reform Code, Presidential Decree No. 705 dated 19 May 1975, as "a forest land reservation essentially of primitive or wilderness character which has been withdrawn from settlement or occupancy and set aside as such exclusively to preserve the scenery, the natural and historic objects and the wild animals or plants therein, and to provide enjoyment of these features in such a manner as will leave them unimpaired for future generations" (NRMC, 1983). Forest Administrative Order No. 7 identifies the purpose of national parks as to: preserve panoramic, scenic or aesthetic interest; provide for recreation; and to preserve flora and fauna, geological features, historic or prehistoric remains and any other feature of scientific or ethnological interest. However, neither a precise definition of national parks, nor specific criteria for selecting areas for national park status is given (Serna, n.d.).

There are numerous confusing and overlapping laws concerning the establishment of marine protected areas. The legislation for, and management of, marine protected areas is discussed in UNEP/IUCN (1988). The first national marine park, Tubbataha Reefs, was established on 11 August 1988 by virtue of Presidential Decree No. 306. The tourist zone, a new category, was devised in the 1970s. These come under the jurisdiction of the Philippines Tourism Authority and within them tourism is given priority over conservation. Puerto Galero Biosphere Reserve falls into this category, although other such zones have been set up under six presidential proclamations (1520, 1522, 1551, 1653, 1667-A and 1801) (NRMC, 1983).

The lack of clear definition and criteria for selecting areas has led to a proliferation of national parks. The total number of national parks created is open to debate, with some authorities stating a total of 62 (NRMC, 1983; PAWB, 1991), 59 (Anon., 1988a), 60 (Basa, 1988) or 72 (Petocz, 1988), the discrepancies probably stemming from the fact that several agencies are responsible for managing protected areas.

A draft 1991 National Integrated Protected Areas System Act has been prepared and is before Congress at present. This will enable the establishment of the Integrated Protected Areas Systems (IPAS) and is being sponsored by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources. Passage of this bill is essential to the implementation of the IPAS because it makes provision for the establishment of the protected areas, funding, administration etc. The Bill has passed the Lower House and is currently before the Senate (C. Roque, pers. comm., 1991). The successful passage is a pre-condition for the release of substantial World Bank funds under the Global Environmental Facility (Roque, 1991).

A review of the current legislative background is being conducted by the Foundation for Sustainable Development as part of the IPAS programme. This includes compiling and reviewing all existing legal instruments, developing guidelines for the proposed IPAS Bill, conducting consultative meetings and submitting the draft legislation to the Philippines legislature (WWF, 1991).

International Activities
The Philippines ratified the Unesco Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage Convention (World Heritage Convention) on 19 September 1985, although no natural sites have been inscribed, and also participates in the Unesco Programme on Man and the Biosphere. Puerto Galera Biosphere Reserve is internationally recognised as a component of the global biosphere reserve network. The Philippines is a member of ASEAN (Association of South-East Asian Nations) and two parks have been recognised as ASEAN Heritage Sites. However, the country has not yet become a contracting party to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as a Waterfowl Habitat.

Administration and Management
As many as ten different bodies have administrative responsibility for national parks (Lewis, 1988), although the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) is predominant. Furthermore, the administration has been centralised and subject to several reorganisations. Following the popular revolution of 1986, the Ministry of Natural Resources was reformed into the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, under the provisions of Executive Order 192. Simultaneously, the Bureau of Forest Development was dissolved and a number of new bureau established within the DENR, including the Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau and the Forest Management Bureau (Scott, 1989). The Bureau of Forestry in the Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources (DANR) was responsible for the administration of national parks between 1932 and 1952. In August 1952 the Commission on Parks and Wildlife, directly under the Office of the President, was created under provisions in the Republic Act No. 826. Government Re-organization Plan No. 45 of 1956 placed the Parks and Wildlife Office under the control of the DANR. A further reorganisation of the government in 1972 led to the merging of the Parks and Wildlife Office with the Bureau of Forestry and the Reforestation Administration to form the Bureau of Forest Development. When, in 1974, the DANR was divided into the Department of Agriculture and Department of Natural Resources, the Bureau of Forest Development was assigned to the latter Department. Between 1982 and 1987, the development and management of all national parks in the provinces of Leyte, Negros Occidental and Palawan were entrusted to the Natural Conservation Office under the direct supervision of the Minister of Natural Resources, pursuant to Ministry of Natural Resources Administrative Order No. 47.

The Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau (PAWB) is one of the staff bureau of the DENR, with a primary responsibility for the establishment and management of protected areas and the conservation of wildlife resources. Its functions are to: formulate and recommend policies, guidelines, rules and regulations for the establishment and management of an IPAS, such as national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and refuges, marine parks and biosphere reserves; formulate and recommend policies, guidelines, rules and regulations for the preservation of biological diversity, genetic resources, the endangered Philippine flora and fauna; prepare an up-to-date listing of endangered Philippine flora and fauna, recommend a programme of conservation and propagation of the same; assist the Secretary (of DENR) in the monitoring and assessment of the management of the IPAS and provide technical assistance to the regional offices in the implementation of programmes for these; and perform any other functions as may be assigned by the Secretary and/or provided by law. The Bureau is headed by a Director assisted by an Assistant Director and complemented by six divisions and two staffs (PAWB, 1991).

PAWB cooperates with the regional offices of the DENR, providing technical assistance, briefing on wildlife policy, resource inventories, education programmes and field operations. the Provincial Environment and Natural Resource Offices and the Community Environment and Natural Resources Offices of the Regional Offices of the DENR perform the actual work of maintaining protected areas. Activities include patrols, habitat restoration, maintenance and interpretation for visitors (PAWB, 1991).

PAWB has a number of major programme areas, but one of the most important is the establishment and management of protected areas. Activities include identification of new sites, boundary marking and periodic assessment, as well as restoration of degraded sites, management of buffer zones and visitor facilities.

Protected areas administration has historically been weak, due to the many institutional reorganisations as well as institutional and juridical struggles. This was particularly true during the period when the Parks and Wildlife Office was subsumed into the Bureau of Forest Development (NRMC, 1983). Further, staffing, funding, training and administrative support have been inadequate (Fernandez, 1988; Penafiel, 1990).

In common with terrestrial areas, marine protected areas also suffer from a confused legislative and administrative background and there is no national governmental mechanism to manage marine areas. In 1977 the Marine Park/Reserve Development Inter-Agency Task Force was set up by Special Order No. 61 to formulate an integrated system of plans and programmes for marine conservation. Under the Presidential Proclamation No. 1801 of 1978 the Philippine Tourism Authority (PTA) assumed responsibility for the promotion and development of aquatic sports. This has led to the establishment of several marine reserves and tourist zones. The Coral Reef Research Team, within the Bureau of Fisheries andAquatic Resources (Ministry of Natural Resources), is responsible for marine conservation within marine reserves.

The non-governmental organisation movement in the Philippines has been gaining considerable momentum over the last few years. Since the overthrow of the Marcos government, both NGOs and the media have become more vocal against issues of pollution, forest degradation and destructive practices in the marine environment. There are now some 11 conservation and environmental NGOs and 17 university or academic-related organisations in the country. The Haribon Foundation has taken on a leading role for the environmental NGO network and an environmentally sympathetic constituency is forming among the public and in the new senate and congress (Petocz, 1988). The Haribon Foundation has also been directly involved in the development of protected areas (Balete, 1990). University research centres and institutes, such as the Marine Science Institute at University of Philippines, Diliman, the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology and Marine Research Institute at Silliman University, the Institute of Environmental Science and Management at University of Philippines, Los Banos and Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources stationed at University of Philippines, Los Banos have all contributed significantly to developing conservation activities in the country.

Systems Reviews
Tropical forests originally covered almost 280,000 sq. km (93%) of the total land area of the Philippines, and still two-thirds of it at the end of World War II (Cox, 1988). There are many published estimates of the current extent of forests, but these are based on different definitions of forest cover and on various information sources covering different periods of time. Consequently, an overall synthesis of the situation is difficult. An estimated 30% (90,000 sq. km) still supports productive or regenerating forest (Cox, 1989). Figures published by Revilla (1986) indicate, however, that forest with at least 40% crown cover may cover only 22% of total land area. The most valuable forests, both economically and biotically, are old-growth dipterocarp formations which cover 9,840 sq. km (3.3%) (Penafiel, 1991). Multispectra/SPOT satellite imagery from 1987-1988 clearly shows the fragmentary nature of the remaining cover, as forests are divided into increasingly isolated vegetation islands (Collins et al., 1991). Furthermore, forest cover is largely restricted to higher land, as human activities preferentially clear lowland vegetation. Major forest blocks, therefore, are restricted to the Sierra Madre and Cordillera Central in Luzon, Central Samar, the highlands around Mt Ragang and other areas to the east in Mindanao. The only extensively forested island is Palawan, principally due to low human population density. However, projected deforestation trends suggest that all but an irreducible minimum of approximately 1,000 sq. km of montane and low quality scrub forest will remain in Palawan by 2010 (HTS, 1985). The annual rate of national deforestation is difficult to define precisely. Estimates range from the highest of 3,790 sq. km between 1972 and 1982 (Ganapin, 1986), 3,235 sq. km between 1970 and 1979 (FAO, 1981), to low estimates of 1,700 sq. km (Cox, 1988) or 910 sq. km (WRI/IIED, 1986). Existing tropical rain forest cover may be lost by the end of the century (Petocz, 1988).

Mangroves, which covered some 4,500 sq. km in 1920, have been depleted both by legal and illegal felling over the last 60 years (Alvarez, 1984). Some 1,461 sq. km of mangroves remained in 1978 (Davies et al., 1990), but only 1,190 sq. km remained in 1990 (Penafiel, 1990). Only 814 sq. km can still be classified as undisturbed (Petocz, 1988) and cover is declining by 50 sq. km each year (Howes, 1987). Other major wetland habitats include estuaries/mudflats, seagrass beds, lakes, freshwater swamps and marshes; a descriptive inventory of wetlands considered to be important for conservation is given by Davies et al., (1990).

The Philippine fauna is exceptionally rich with some 960 terrestrial vertebrates. Many species are forest obligates and are acutely threatened by forest loss. Endemism collectively amounts to 43% of species, with 59% endemic mammals (100 species out of a total of 167) and as many as 85% of non-volant mammals (79 species) (Heaney, 1986; Petocz, 1988). There are 162 endemic bird species out of a total of 388 resident species (Bruce, 1980). Endemism is also unusually high in the herpetofauna at 63% (160 species) whilst 17% (240 species) of the icthyofauna is endemic (Petocz, 1988). Plant endemism is estimated at 44% (3,500 species) but only 5% (75 species) in Palawan (Davies et al., 1986)

The Philippine National Conservation Strategy (Haribon Society, 1983), produced under the guidance of the FAO in 1985, has not yet been formally adopted by the government, but is in the process of being reviewed and revised by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources prior to being presented to the President and legislature for approval. The National Conservation Strategy is intended to reflect the needs and priorities in preserving biological diversity, endorse the new comprehensive national protected areas network (Anon., 1988a) and provide guidance for sustainable development and resource utilisation. The National Conservation Strategy may also be used to promulgate policies on family planning and population stabilisation (Petocz, 1988).

The Australian Association for Research, Exploration and Aid (AREA), in cooperation with the Philippines Ministry of Natural Resources, founded a Department of Special Projects (1982) to deal with specific conservation problems, e.g. the "Palawan Conservation Programme" set up to coordinate and develop all national parks and conservation activities on Palawan island. A Strategic Environment Plan for Palawan, funded by the EEC, has been completed after eight years' work by national and international consultants. The plan provides a comprehensive framework for sustainable development of Palawan in both terrestrial and marine environments (Petocz, 1988). The extent to which this plan has been implemented is not currently known.

The new government's more enlightened approach to environmental conservation led to an agreement between the Department of Environment and Natural Resources and the Asian Development Bank on 5 April 1988 to provide more than US$ 100 million in soft loans for a national programme of reforestation, social forestry, timber stand improvement, watershed management, development of rattan plantations and forest protection programmes for 1988-1992. The loan is supplemented by a technical assistance grant of US$ 665,000 for studies of forestry development and serves as an excellent model for other Asian governments (Petocz, 1988).

Funding for conservation activities has been made available through "debt swap" agreements. In the first such agreement in Asia, the World Wide Fund for Nature agreed in June 1988 to purchase US$ 2 million of Philippines external debt. The funds are made available in local currency to the Haribon Foundation and the Department of Environment and Natural Resources for a variety of nature conservation activities. These include the development of St Paul's National Park on Palawan, El Nido National Marine Park (Anon., 1988b), Mount Pulog in Benguet (PAWB, 1991), field surveys of several recommended protected areas and other activities (J. Tongson, pers. comm.).

At least 59 national parks have been created since 1900, but they provide little effective protection for the country's terrestrial environment, and in 1986 the Haribon Foundation (Haribon Foundation, 1986) indicated that none would satisfy international protected areas standards established by IUCN. The integrity of virtually all the reserves in the existing Philippines protected areas system, which includes less than 1.3% of the country's total land surface, is poorly maintained. In 1975, it was reported that approximately 72,000 people were permanently settled in park lands and that 54,000ha of the protected area estate were under some form of cultivation (DAP, 1975). A further 4,000ha were being logged by timber companies. Recent information is not available, but it is likely that these figures now drastically underestimate the current situation. Park boundaries are frequently not demarcated (Basa, 1988), law enforcement is lacking and current staffing and financial provisions are such that the PAWB is unable to deploy an effective corps of forest guards and park rangers (WCMC, 1988).

A systematic attempt to identify an integrated protected areas system (IPAS) was initiated in 1986, supported by WWF-US, Department of Environment and Natural Resources and the Haribon Foundation (Anon., 1988a). This identified 27 "priority one" potential protected areas and a further 41 "priority two" areas; only 19 existing national parks were included. The report recommended that the remaining sites be excluded from the IPAS programme. Although the specific recommendations of this study were not accepted by the government, the principle of a planned protected areas system became established. The IPAS was further pursued in the World Bank's FFARM (Forestry, Fisheries and Agricultural Management) Study which included recommendations to the government for the establishment and management of a national protected areas system. The current, World Bank funded IPAS, is effectively a component of the Asian Development Bank-funded Master Plan for Forestry Development (DENR, 1989) and is coordinated by WWF-US, with a number of participatory organisations within the Philippines. It aims, initially, to identify and initiate management for ten priority sites (WWF, 1991). The long term strategy is to place the last adequate, remaining stands of forest, significant marine areas and wetlands under a protected areas regime, with as much as 20% of the country included (Roque, 1991). However, the current funding for the IPAS is short-term, and the full implementation of the system will require both long-term and more substantial funding than is currently available. The proposed IPAS law will recognise an "Indicative List", in which some 330 sites in 15 biogeographical regions are named. In addition, all the remaining old growth forest, some 70,000 sq. km, will be included within the system under various categories according to both size and site (C. Roque, pers. comm., 1991).

Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Quezon City (Tel: 2 978511-15; FAX: 2 981010; Tlx: 7572000 envinar ph)

Ecological Society of the Philippines, 53 Tamarind Road, Forbes Park, Makati, Metro Manila, PO Box 1739, MCC (FAX: 631 7357; Tlx: 29006 JRS PH)

The Haribon Foundation for the Conservation of Natural Resources, Suite 901, Richbelt Towers, 17 Annapolis Street, Greenhills, San Juan, Metro Manila (Tel: 722 7180/722 6357; FAX: 722 7119)

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Alvarez, J.B. (1984). Our vanishing forests. Greenfields 14(2): 6-16.

Balete, D.S. (1990). Final report on the faunal and socio-economic surveys of Mt. Isarog National Park, Camarine Sur, Luzon Island. A Debt-for-Nature Swap project of the Haribon Foundation for the Conservation of Natural Resources in collaboration with the Department of the Environment and Natural Resources and World Wildlife Fund-US. Unpublished. 53 pp.

Basa, V.F. (1988). Current report: boundaries of national parks. Integrated protected areas technical workshop. WWF-US/Department of Environment and Natural Resources/Haribon Foundation for the Conservation of Natural Resources. University of the Philippines, Los Banos, 15-17 March. 5 pp.

Bruce, M.D. (1980). A field list of the birds of the Philippines. Traditional Explorations. Sydney, Australia. 8 pp.

Collins, N.M., Sayer, J.A. , and Whitmore, T.C. (Eds) (1991). The conservation atlas of tropical forests: Asia and the Pacific. Macmillan Press Ltd, London. 256 pp.

Cox, C.R. (1988). The conservation status of biological resources in the Philippines: a report by the IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre. Draft. Cambridge. 37 pp.

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Davies, J., Magsalay, P.M., Rigor, R., Mapalo, A. and Gonzales, H. (1990). A Directory of Philippines wetlands. Two Volumes. Asian Wetland Bureau Philippines Foundation/Haribon Foundation.

Davies, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C.J., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H. and Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in danger: what do we know? IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 461 pp.

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Fernandez, P.V. (1988). A community care system for national parks (proposal for legislation). Integrated Protected Areas (IPAS) Workshop. University of the Philippines, Los Banos, 15-17 March. Pp. 90-108.

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Ganapin, D.J. (1987). Forest resources and timber trade in the Philippines. In: Proceedings of the Conference in Forest Resources Crisis in the Third World, 6-8 September 1986, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Sahabat Alam, Kuala Lumpur. Pp. 54-70.

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Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title: Act No. 3915

Date: 1 February 1932

Brief description: An Act providing for the establishment of national parks, declaring such parks as game refuges and for other purposes

Administrative authority: Director of Forestry/ Department of Environment and Natural Resources

Designations:

National parks Areas of the public domain, which because of their panoramic, historical, scientific or aesthetic value, should be dedicated and set apart as a national parks for the benefit and enjoyment of the people of the Philippine Islands.

Game refuges and bird sanctuaries National parks declared as game refuges and bird sanctuaries, and except as provided for in the act, within which it is unlawful for any person to hunt, take, wound or kill, or in any manner disturb or drive away therefrom, any wild bird or wild animal, or take or destroy the nests or eggs of such birds, or take or kill and fish or shellfish.

Title: Forestry Administrative Order No. 7 (National Park Regulations)

Date: 1 January 1934

Brief description: Pursuant to the provisions of section 4 of Act No. 3915, entitled "An Act providing for the establishment of national parks, declaring such parks as game refuges and for other purposes", this Administrative Order setting forth the rules and regulations governing the establishment, supervision and protection, maintenance and use of national parks, is hereby promulgated for the information and guidance of all concerned.

Designations:

National park Such tract of land as shall have been set aside by proclamation of the Governor-General under the provisions of Act No. 3915.

IUCN (1992). Protected Areas of the World: A review of national systems. Volume 1: Indomalaya, Oceania, Australia and Antarctic. Prepared by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC). IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. xx+352pp.

IUCN (1992). Protected Areas of the World: A review of national systems. Volume 2: Palaearctic. Prepared by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC). IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. xxviii+556pp.

IUCN (1992). Protected Areas of the World: A review of national systems. Volume 3: Afrotropical. Prepared by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC). IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. xxii+360pp.

IUCN (1992). Protected Areas of the World: A review of national systems. Volume 4: Nearctic and Neotropical. Prepared by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC). IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. xxiv+460pp.

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