speaking1

Speaking is an essential tool for communicating, thinking, and learning. Oral language is a powerful learning tool. It shapes, modifies, extends, and organizes thought. Oral language is a foundation of all language development and, therefore, the foundation of all learning. It is the base for the other language strands. Through speaking and listening, students learn concepts, develop vocabulary, and perceive the structure of the English language--essential components of learning.

Oral language can grow naturally out of other activities. Oral language is best developed through meaningful use in a trusting environment taking into account students' cultural backgrounds and communication styles. Teachers play an important role in structuring the type of environment that will promote effective oral language development. They can establish a classroom tone which promotes openness, respect, and trust. Students should feel some ownership in the classroom voice. Language use is a natural part of this learning environment where purposeful talk is seen as a an important means to language learning.

Teachers act as role models for language, demonstrating the standard for language use. By listening to their students talk, teachers can come to know the students, their interests, and their language needs. They learn what students know, how they learn, and the language and experiences they bring to the classroom. Based on this information, teachers can provide for more stimulating and meaningful language activities.

An important goal in a speaking lessonis to create purposeful and varied activities that will develop individuals who can comfortably and competently participate in a range of situations requiring speech. Hook and Evans (1982) identified four overall kinds of speaking situations that students should encounter, not only in the classroom but in their adult lives. The types of speech range from personal, exploratory speech to more formal, ceremonial speech. Students need to develop fluency and confidence in their oral language through experiences in many types of speech situations.

Group I -- Activities for often-used types of speech: inner speech, conversation, talking circles, question and answer, discussion (both small group and whole class), storytelling, oral interpretation
Group II -- Activities for less-used types of speech: introduction, interview, panel discussion, seminar, business meeting, formal speech, illustrated talk, announcement
Group III -- Activities for more limited types of speech: debating and dramatization (role playing, improvisation, choral reading/speaking, readers theatre, play reading)
Group IV -- Activities for primarily professional types of speech: special and vocational speeches (e.g., toasts, election speeches, valedictorian speeches, introductory speeches,acceptance speech).

All speech activities are best incorporated into classroom lessons so that they are integrated and not perceived as separate units.

Group I: Activities for Often-Used Types of Speech

Students use informal talk to make their thinking explicit to themselves as well as to others. They also use it to assimilate new concepts and knowledge before attempting more technical and formal language use. Teachers also promote talk to build classroom relationships. By talking in pairs, in small groups, and in whole class discussion, students learn to co-operate and collaborate.

Inner speech is important for learning, serving as a mediator between thought and external speech. Students should be aware of their speech processes and, therefore, able consciously to clarify and extend their learning. Whatever the language activity, teachers need to encourage students to be aware of the potential of inner speech in their learning. Simple statements, such as, Put it in your own words, Talk it out, Tell me what you're thinking, encourage the development of inner speech and form the base for other speech activities.

Conversation (dialogue) is the social interchange of thoughts, information, or feelings between people. In life and in the classroom, conversation is used to establish self-esteem, build relationships, assess feelings, and seek information. While conversation can be difficult to structure, there are times that focused conversation should be encouraged in the classroom. Students can productively converse about such topics as assignments, literature, film and television, and current issues. Good conversation sets the tone for more structured discussion.

Talking Circles are useful when students need to share feelings or when the topic under consideration has no right or wrong answer. Students are seated in a circle. One student holds an item such as a small stone while speaking. Only the student holding the object is allowed to speak. When finished, the student passes the item clockwise to the next person. This procedure is followed until all participants have had an opportunity to speak. Any participant who does not wish to speak may pass and silence is an acceptable response. Comments that put down others or oneself (e.g., "I don't think anyone will agree with me, but ..." or "I'm not very good at ...") should be discouraged. The purpose of talking circles is not always to reach a decision or consensus. More importantly, the purpose is to create a safe environment for students to share their feelings and points of view. They come to believe what they say will be listened to and accepted without criticism. They gain an empathetic appreciation for points of view other than their own.

Discussions consist of a group of students exchanging information, opinions, or experiences and working toward a common goal or adding to common knowledge. Discussions are an effective means of helping students learn to express themselves in small groups or whole class settings. They are usually more structured than conversations.

Teachers need to be aware of the questions they ask during whole class discussion. The key to teacher-led discussion is the quality and kind of questions asked. In addition, teachers must listen carefully to students' responses. To ensure that whole-class discussions do not become teacher monologues punctuated by teacher questions, consider the following:

* Questions should reflect all levels of thinking.
* Questions should be well thought-out and engaging.
* Questions should allow for expansion and elaboration.
* Questions should be directed so all students can participate.
* Questions and subsequent responses should be followed by appropriate wait time.
* Questions should cause students to draw upon previous knowledge.
* Questions should cause students to give reasons or provide evidence.
* Questions should also come from students, and students should be encouraged to speak to each other as well as the teacher.

In small group discussions each student has many more opportunities to talk and be listened to than in whole-class discussions. Because students must take responsibility for their group's learning, group work develops independence. It fosters and enhances skills in collaboration and allows a teacher to interact more closely and more frequently with individual students. Co-operating effectively in small groups is a life skill.

Numerous methods are available to encourage effective small group discussions. Among them are the following:

Grouptalk: This method helps students discuss a given question. Whipple (1975) suggests the following guidelines be given to the students before they begin their discussions. A tape recorder can be used to monitor the discussions.

Starting Rules:
        1.Read today's question and tell yourself what it means.
        2.Discuss its meaning; tell others what you think the question means.
        3.Decide on one meaning; agree on the meaning before you start answering the question.

Discussion Rules:
        1.Contribute; give your thoughts on the question.
        2.Be relevant; stick to the subject.
        3.Listen; try to understand what someone else is saying.
        4.Respond; comment on what others have said.

Ending Rules:
        1.Sum up; help in the summary by trying to remember the main ideas discussed.
        2.Evaluate; listen to the playback and comment on how well the Grouptalk rules were followed

Jigsaw: Students are divided into groups of no more than five ("home" groups). They research and become experts on a particular piece of the topic, theme, or issue. They then form new "expert" groups. (Each expert group includes one student from each home group.) Each member shares specific expertise with the others. For example, students could use a jig-saw format to investigate contemporary poetry.
        1.Four poets are chosen to be investigated by the class.
        2.Students form groups of four. This is the home group.
        3.As a group, the students decide which poet each group member will investigate.
        4.Students form expert groups where each of the members is investigating the same poet.
        5.Using the anthologies found in the resource centre, students collectively decide on four to eight
             representative poems by their poet.
        6.Students in each group prepare some background notes on the poet's life, the poet's style, and the poems
             they have chosen. They decide the best order of presentation of the poems and background information.
        7.Students return to their home group and present a mini-seminar sharing their expertise.

Brainstorming: Brainstorming involves students gathering in groups to solve a problem or generate ideas. The following format can be used:
        1.a topic is given
        2.group is formed
        3.each member presents as many ideas as possible
        4.each member builds on another member's ideas
        5.after a set time, brainstormed ideas are categorized and organized
        6.results are shared with the whole class.

Brainstorming can be used in numerous situations, including to preview a theme (e.g.,"Courage"), or to review a theme or group of literary selections (e.g., choosing ten key selections for a class anthology). Some guidelines for working in groups are listed on the following page.

Storytelling is an act of sharing, often as important to the storyteller as to the listener. When people tell someone a good story they release their real language power. Storytelling can come from personal experience, from one's imagination, or from stories heard or read. It involves students by creating a link with peers, with the oral tradition, and with literature. It attunes students to their audience, to the power of language, and to narrative structure. Tanner (1991) provides guidelines for effective storytelling. Students should:

   1.Select a story or story segment that lends itself to retelling. Their best choice is a story that has a tightly constructed plot with an interesting beginning, a logical development of episodes, spirited conflict, and a definite climax that brings out a brief, satisfying conclusion.
   2.Visualize every scene and character. In their minds they should really "see" what is occurring until they feel they have actually lived that experience.
   3.Use simple, powerful language consistent with the story's style. Students should not try to memorize the author's words. They should use their own words, except for a few phrases that they may need to retain to help the "flavour" of the tale. Because words are their only tools for building the story, they should use a rich vocabulary that arouses the imagination.
   4.Breathe life into the tale. They should show enthusiasm and spontaneity in their voices, in their bodies, and in their eyes.
   5.Create suspense through a varied tone and rate. They should be shown that it is boring to hear everything delivered in the same tone and at the same pace. Variety is necessary to communicate thought and feeling, and to build toward an exciting climax.
   6.Use a flexible voice. Students should vocally distinguish between the various people, giants, animals, and monsters that appear frequently in stories. They should use a wide range of pitch, quality, and force. When they turn from character to narrator, they should keep their voices pleasant and pitched for easy listening. They should always articulate clearly so the audience will catch every word

Group II: Activities for Less-Used Types of Speech

Group II activities include many speech activities that are found in daily life as well as in the classroom. They are important because they expand students' oral language repertoires. Students should have some opportunities to practise introducing speakers, as this is a skill frequently used in adult life.

The introduction should be brief and interesting. The students' most important job is to tell who is speaking and why. They should include information that will catch the attention of the audience and is complimentary to the speaker. Students should make sure all words are pronounced correctly, especially the speaker's name which should be mentioned at the beginning and at the end.

Some teaching suggestions for introducing speakers include:

* Students can role play introducing a government official (celebrity, author, or a noted professional) to a school assembly. They can include a name, title, and any biographical information they wish. Students should write out their introduction and then deliver it without notes.
* Students can, in pairs, introduce themselves and their partner to another pair of students.
* Students can take the responsibility of introducing a new student to the class.
* Students can write a one to two minute tribute or testimonial to a classmate. The tribute should be personal but not embarrassing.

An interview can often be an effective method of obtaining information. Students will be interviewed themselves whenever they apply for work. Many of them will become the interviewers in the future.

Panel discussions occur when a group discusses an issue by pooling its knowledge and working towards a solution. Panel discussions encourage the sharing of different views, and a more open-minded attitude than debate. They also allow for audience participation.

Symposiums are formal public discussions in which individuals present speeches giving their own views on a pre-selected topic or question. The topic is open to debate and the goal of the symposium is to explore the question and to consider various perspectives and possible answers. In contrast with an informal discussion and panel discussion, the participants prepare and present formal speeches based on their independent research, rather than speaking spontaneously in response to questions from the leader or moderator.

Business meetings are structured discussions which lead to group decisions. Most students will be involved in numerous organizations during their lifetimes and will benefit from knowing the basics of parliamentary procedure which allows for meetings to run smoothly and efficiently.

Group III: Activities for More Limited Types of Speech

Group III speech experiences are required during special occasions in life. In English language arts courses, they are used primarily to further the understanding and appreciation of issues.

Debating is a discussion of the arguments for and against something and can be either formal or informal. Even two people can have a debate. A useful classroom debate format follows:

1.Decide on a topic and a proposition.
2.Choose four students. Two students take the affirmative. They research and attempt to defend the topic. The other two students refute the resolution
3.The four students alternate, each presenting speeches of a predetermined time (e.g., five minutes). The order is:
          first affirmative
          first negative
          second affirmative
          second negative.
   4.Each of the four is allowed a few minutes to disprove the other team's arguments. The order is:
          first negative
          first affirmative
          second negative
          second affirmative.
   5.The class may direct questions to the four debaters.
   6.A vote is taken.

Debates can be structured so they involve an entire class. Cruchley (1984) developed the following format for a full- class debate:

   1.Establish an issue with the class.
   2.Divide the class into pro and con. Rearrange the desks to have the two sides face each other.
   3.Each student independently records ideas and proofs to justify his/her assigned position.
   4.Begin with the affirmative.
   5.Use the following rules:
* Each student is given five points the first time speaking.
* Students get a point for each idea presented.
* Students get two points for each proof cited or example given.
* Points will be deducted if a student speaks without being recognized by the chair, insults the opponents, etc.
* A student may speak only twice.

In formal debates, attention must be paid to conventions and time lines.

Drama can play an important role in the language arts classroom. Through imaginative role playing, and voice and movement exercises, students can use drama as a basis for learning. They can express themselves, experiment with new ideas, respond to situations, develop understanding, concentrate, and gain confidence.

Role playing is pretending that one is another person. Students attempt to think, act, speak, and react as they think that person would. An improvisation is a dramatic representation that has been composed and presented on the spur of the moment. There is no script and the direction the improvisation takes depends upon the students' interpretation of character.

Group IV: Activities for Primarily Professional Types of Speech

Speech activities related to specialized situations (e.g., toasts, election speeches, acceptance speeches, etc.) can help prepare students for entering certain professions.