Speaking                                                                              Psychological Factors · The first manifestation of language that we master, as well as the most frequently occurring medium. It is a social act. With an audience/ respondent present, it elicits some form of action, interaction, or reaction between individuals. Speech has a  "situational context." · Speech is linear in form and cannot be retracted, but  it can be amended.  Linguistic Factors · In speaking we are not always concerned with precision in expression. We can make a statement, repeat it, expand it, and refine it according to the reactions and interjections of our listeners. Speech can be telegraphic. · Speech has a higher tolerance for repetition of a phrase or sentence than writing. Cognitive Factors · Speech develops naturally and early in our first language. · Acquisition of speech is an "ego-building" activity.

Speaking vs. Writing

Writing Psychological Factors · Largely a solitary act. It is communication formed in isolation. Written work must normally secure its meaning in some future time. It lacks a clear situational context and therefore requires a sustained act of imagination. The writer needs to "fictionalize" an audience. · As writers write, they also assume the roles of readers, i.e., they bring their own perceptions and views to the reading task and assume that intended readers will possess those same perceptions, views, and expectations. Linguistic Factors · Written statements must be constructed more carefully, concisely, and coherently to ensure that our meaning is clear. Writing employs longer structures which serve to elaborate meaning -- think of a child saying "Water," for example. · Repetition leads to redundance and the loss of the audience. Cognitive Factors · Competence in writing usually develops much more slowly in first language acquisition. Writing is usually learned through formal instruction rather than through natural acquisition processes. Writing requires extensive previous learning. Writing requires much more complex mental effort: we are forced to concentrate on both meaning of ideas and on the production. Production is rarely rapid or fluent nor is meaning always clear. · For many students, learning to write is "ego- destructive." · Because our students are thinking in their first language and translating sentence for sentence as they write in the second language, rather than translating ideas from the first to the second language, they often experience enormous frustrations as they learn to write in the second language.