LOWER PALAEOLITHIC CULTURE

Stone age research in India started with the discovery of hand-axes at Pallavaram near Madras by Robert Bruce Foote in 1863. Stone age can be broadly divided into Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic periods. Palaeolithic period represents the first phase of Man’s cultural evolution as he started using extra-corporeal equipment for offensive and defensive purposes from this period. Though he must have utilized stone, bone and wood for this purpose, we have mostly evidence of stone, as other material is perishable and lost in course of time. Till recently, it was believed that the Palaeolithic period in India has an antiquity of about 5 lakh years. But recent evidence from Bori in Maharashtra and Isampur in Karnataka suggests that the stone age in India could be pushed back beyond 1.4 million years. Isampur in Karnataka also has given a date of more than a million yers for Lower Palaeolithic period.

These are more or less crudely sharpened pebbles, usually of quartzite, and frequently retaining a part of the cortex (original surface) of the pebble. Choppers, scrapers and points are the usual types occurring in the category. Pebble industries in India are often referred to as “Soan” (or Sohan) industries, from the Punjab river where they were first recovered.

In this category two main series have been recognized, a) Clactonian – the flake struck off an unprepared block by mens of a ‘hammer’ or by stricking against fixed anvil (block-on-block) technique and b) Lavalloisian technique, where ‘tortoise’ core is first trimmed by the removal of a series of small flakes from the stone block, the large flake is detached by a blow on a small platform. The detached flake shows converging flaking on the upper side and a flat surface on the under-side, and is generally usable as a scraper, knife or spearhead without further working.

Blade is a stone tool, which usually has a length twice its width. The blades are removed using either presser or punching techniques. Blade tools are introduced in Upper Palaeolithic period.

THE SOHAN CULTURE: A Sohan or Soan is tributary of river Indus. Sohan which drains the Potwar region joins the Indus some what north of Jhelum. Presently, most of this region is in Pakistan. The Palaeolithic culture found in this region is entirely different from that found in the Indian continent. The Sohan Palaeolithic tools were found for the first time in the Pleistocene terrace deposits of Potwar region by De Terra and Paterson of the Yale Cambridge expedition.

In this Sohan stone tools although, there was a flake element in the early stages, the use of pebble was dominant. Typologically, the tools can be distinguished as Abbevellian, Early Acheulian, Middle Acheulian and Late Acheulian. But there is no stratigraphic basis for this sub-division as the tools are found in a mixed state.

The Pebble tools of Sohan industries are classified into two main sub-types, the Chopper and Chopping tools. The chopper has a round, semi-oval or almost straight cutting edge. The edge is formed by removal of flakes only from the upper surface of the implement. A chopper is thus a unifacial tool, worked on one side only and hence some scholars designate as a unifacial tool. The chopping tool is also made on a pebble or a core. Its edge is produced by alternate flaking. This alternate flaking gives the tool a wavy edge. The chopping tool is thus a bi-facial tool, worked on both the faces. Owing to the dominance of chopper and chopping tools the Sohan complex is also called Chopper chopping complex. The Arrythian culture of Burma and the Chouketin culture of China, the Tampanian culture of Malaysia and the Patjitinian culture of Java are characterised by the Chopper chopping tools. The Sohan culture seems to be related to these chopper chopping cultures of Southeast Asia.

The Sohan industry has its spread also in sub-Himalayan region in Punjab and Himachalpradesh. The Sirsa valley in Punjab and Beas- Banganga valley in Kangra district in Himachal Pradesh has yielded evidence of Sohan industries. In Beas-Banganga Guler is an important site. The recent researches have shown that pebble tool industry has much wider spread in Peninsular India.

The stone tools found in North India show three phases of evolution. They are 1) Pre-Sohan; 2) Early-Sohan; and 3) Late-Sohan.

The tools which constitute the earliest Palaeolithic culture (corresponding to second glaciation – 4 lakh B.P.) (But new evidence from Bori in Maharashtra has pushed back the date of Palaeolithic culture to 14 lakh years B.P.) in India consist of large flakes made from crude split pebbles. The uper surface is generally un-worked. The strikeing platforms are simple, unfaceted. There is no secondary working. The tools are worked on only one side and hence uni-facial.

During this phase catagories of tools were recognised, 1) pebble tools consisting mainly chopping tools with flat base. The flakes have been struck upwards in such a way as to form a thick steep cutting edge. Thse tools are sometimes given secondary retouch either on one side or both sides. 2) The second catagory consists of flake tools and cores. The techniques of flake removed is either platformed or non-platformed. Both Levalloisian (tortois core) and Clactonian type of flake removal also is witnessed in this category hand-axes of Madrasian industry also occur.

Late Sohan tools occur in the deposits of the third Glaciation. (2 lakh years ago). The Levalloisian technique noticed in the earlier industry continues. Rough oval pebbles with untouched butt and flaking along the opposite side, some times from each surface alternately, producing wavy edge are more common. Late Sohan is devoid of hand-axes.

After the partition, the known sites in West punjab have gone to Pakistan. So efforts were made to discover sites in the Indian territory. The discoveries made in the Eastern Punjab are discussed below:

SIRSA VALLEY: Sirsa is a tributory of Sutlez. Important site in this valley is Nalgarh in the foot hills of the Simla Himalayas. Three terraces approximately at the hight of 70 ft., 40ft. and 10 ft. respectively from the present stream level. The tools have been found on the first two terraces, and they do not show much typological difference.

The tools are made of light coloured quartzite and consist of pebble tools and flake tools. The pebble tools are made on rounded water-worn pebbles and include primarily choppers and scrapers. The flakes are struck from the original pebble surface and in some of the tools in the Sohan. The choppers have two directional alternate flaking. This is in contrast to what is observed in Early Sohan. But the associated flakes show resemblance to the Early Sohan of the North West Punjab.

In 1955 B.B. Lal found Sohan type tools in the Beas and Banganga valleys in Kangra district, East Punjab. He also noticed 5 terraces at Guler and elsewhere. At Guler there are five terraces T.1-375 ft; T.2-150 ft.; T.3-90 ft.; T.4- 3 ft. and T.5-______ . T.1 yielded only unificial “Chippr” while T.2 yielded this as well as “Choping tools” and one pebble hand-axe, a core and six Clactonian flakes and proto-Levalloisian flakes. The artifacts thus are of the Early Sohan type. Other sites in this valley are Nalgarh, Pirthan, Khokra-ka-choa, Bhud and Rampur. Mohapatra thinks that Nalgarh lithic industry , though belonging to the Sohan complex with its handy choppers and controlled flakeing, bi-facially worked discoids and prepared flakes is on the whole more advanced than that of the Kangra valley. In other parts of the Punjab, smally number of hand-axes and cleavers are reported. But it is not yet certain whether this industry is as old as chopper industry or later.

In the central Narmada valley the basal the gravel yiel ded unworn or fresh Acheulian tools along with heavily rolled Abbevillian handaxes , choppers on pebbles and lagre massive flakes This indicates that the latter tools are earlier than Acheulian tools. The fresh condition of the Acheulian tools indicate that they got incorporated in the gravel while it was being deposited by the Narmada. This suggests that the basal gravel of the lower group was deposited when the lower Palaeolithic man here was manufacturing Acheulian type of tools. It follows then that the heavily rolled Abbevillian hand-axes and the pebbel choppers and large flakes were manufactured before the beginning of the deposition of the basal gravel . This goup of tools has, therefore, been placed earlier in date than that of the Acheulian. On the whole the Narmada valley is a meeting places for both chopper(Sohan) and handaxe(Madrasian) industries.

The excavations conducted in 1963 at Mahadev piparia yield 860specimens The collection consisted of

More significant is the discovery of scull cap of Pre-historic man in middle pleistocene deposits at Hathnora in Hoshangabad district. The discovery was made by Arun Soakia of the Geological Survay of India. This discovery is very important since this is the only instance in India ,where we have the skeletal remains of palaeolithic man though his tools are available from numerous sites.

The environs of Godavari amagor river of the peninsular India was a favorite ground for prehistoric man. In Godavari valley several important Palaeolithic sites were discovered.

CHIRKI-NEWASA: An Acheulian site was discovered at Chirki on river Pravara, a tributary of Godavari, some three kilometers from Nevasa in Ahmadnagar district of Maharashtra. The site was discovered by Gudrun Cornvus in 1963 and later excavated by her for three seasons from 1966 to 1969.

Man camped on the flat surface on the banks of the valley and used the bouldry terrace as his factory site to manufacture his tools there from the available boulders. But, no trace of his camp site could be found, the tools were prepared using basalt or dolorite boulders. Chalcedony and Quartz was also used for tools. The excavated site yielded more than 2000 artifacts, suggesting that it was a factory site . The angularity and sharpness of the tools show that no transportation took place. In the assemblage are included large number of unfinished artificats and large flakes, waste flakes and pebbles with little working.

The tools have been found both in finished and unfinished stages, classified into pebble tools and flake tools. The pebble tools consists of hand-axes and cleavers scrapers knives, chisels, borers, worked flakes, waste flakes,etc. On pebble tools alternate flaking and secondary working was noticed. The choppers are uni-facial, bi-facial, poly-hydral ( with many angles), backed and discoidal.

TECHNIQUES OF TOOL PRODUCTION: Over 90% of the flakes are side struck and only a few are end-struck or obliquely struck. The cores were prepared as they have flat base. On hand-axes the flakes are removed by side flaking, whereas for cleavers the straight cutting edge is produced by transversal and lateral trimming.

3. It is probably was not far removed in time from the middle Palaeolithic industry.

EVIDENCE FROM KUKDI VALLEY: The river Kukdi is a tributary of the Bhima, which is itself a tributary of the Krishna river. The stratigraphical record in the explored part of the Kukdi valley around the village Bori in district Pune of Maharashtra consists of the earlier deposits of the quarternary period in India. Here layer 3 consist of a volcanic ash bed varying in thickness in 1 to 2 Mts. this has been dated by the Kar.(Potassium Argon) to 1.4 million yers (14 lakh years). below this layer, (layer 4, which is earlier than layer 3) a clayey deposit yielded a large flake in mint condition. This is the earliest date available to stone age cultures in India.

Nagarjunakonda is a picturesque valley in the Palnad taluk of the Guntur district Andhra Pradesh. This valley has been the abode of the Man right from the Stone age times. Palaeolithic tools occurred over a large part of the valley as surface scatters. The majority of the tools found were quite fresh and unrolled. This indicates that the tools were not moved much from their original position, where they were left by the early man. Excavations conducted two different sites one at site 128 and other in sector S-XIII near Phirangimotu provided evidence of two phases of Lower Palaeolithic industries.

SITE 128 : Excavated by H. Sarkar. The following stratigraphic evidence was obtained in the excavation.

1. Surface soil containing few microliths resting on talus deposit (sloping rocky deposit);

2. Talus deposit of shingles (small water worn pebbles) containing middle Palaeolithic tools, the deposit resting unconformably on the pebble deposit below;

The Lower Palaeolithic have thus been recovered from the pebble bed. The quartzite pebbles of this bed are covered by a thick mantle of dark brown patina. But the artifacts are without the patina. It is therefore evident that the tools were manufactured considerably after the deposition of the pebbles.

The raw material used for preparing the implements was the river rolled quartzite pebbles. It was a factory site where, the tools were manufactured at the very site where the raw material was avaialable in abundance. But this interpretation has to be evaluated critically because of the following reasons.

3. There is not a single core showing even a single flake scar big enough for a hand-axe or cleaver;

In view of the above, it is difficult to ascertain the nature of this site. Not a single bone has been recovered from this site.

The industry consists of hand-axes, cleavers, choppers, scrapers, borers and flakes. It clearly belong to acheulian phase of the Chelles-Acheul industry. In Nagarjunakonda valley this industry is the earliest one techno-typologically. The primary flakes were detached from the pebbles almost invariably in the block-on-block technique. Most of the specimens do not show any platform. The secondary retouches were done in soft hammer technique. A small number of hand-axes are unifacial and the remaining bi-facial. The shapes in the hand-axes include ovates, elongated oval shaped, lanceolate, triangular, sub-triangular and elongated and pear shaped. Some of the hand-axes are with incipient tang prepared for hafting.

All the Cleavers are made on flakes struck from pebbles. The cleavers are V-shaped, U-shaped and some belong to intermediate shape. In cross-section they are parallalogrammatic,¹ triangular,² biconvex,³ trapazoidal⁴ and plano-convex. Those of the biconvex being majority.

This site, located in the high grounds fairly away from the river but not close to hills, was excavated by K.D. Banerjee. The nature of deposit occurring is completely different from the earlier site. There the excavation revealed an acheulian industry in calcareous tufa (porus rock). The stratigraphy is as follows.:

2. a thin deposit of calcareous tufa, containing tools of the acheulian industry;

The thin layer of tufa had no stratigraphic value. The excavated palaeoliths exhibit a well-knitt group and probably do not contain admixture or artifacts belonging to other industries. In their typo-technological features they appear more advanced than those recovered at Site-128. Thus it may be a later industry.

The number of excavated tools is relatively small and they include hand-axes and cleavers choppers account for nearly half of the collection, whereas in Site-128 they are insignificant in number.

The hand-axes are made on flakes. They show extensive use of marginal retouches. The cleavers are more developed and exhibit finest possible workmanship. They are U-shaped and V-shaped. The choppers are unifacial and bifacial. The scrapers are of side, end and round varieties.