Table of Contents
Introduction............................................................................. Page 4
The Basic Camera.............................................................. Page 5
Types of Cameras............................................................... Page 6
Simple Cameras................................................................... Page 6
Adjustable Cameras............................................................. Page 6
Automatic Cameras.............................................................. Page 7
Film....................................................................................... Page 8
Composition......................................................................... Page 9
Simplicity............................................................................ Page 10
Rule of Thirds..................................................................... Page 11
Lines................................................................................... Page 11
Balance............................................................................... Page 12
Framing .............................................................................. Page 12
Avoiding Mergers................................................................ Page 13
Taking Pictures................................................................... Page 14
Light................................................................................... Page 15
Tips for Better Pictures........................................................ Page 16
Close-ups...................................................................... Page 16
Rules of Road................................................................ Page 17
Close-Focusing Lenses.................................................. Page 18
Zoom Lenses................................................................. Page 18
Lighting................................................................................. Page 19
Depth of Field....................................................................... Page 20
Processing............................................................................ Page 21
Loading the Developing Reel ................................................. Page 22
Making Prints........................................................................ Page 24
Making a Proof Sheet............................................................. Page 24
Processing your Proof Sheet.................................................. Page 26
Enlarging your Proof Sheet..................................................... Page 28
Making Test Prints and Exposures.......................................... Page 28
Safe Disposal of Used Chemicals..................................... Page 29
Glossary................................................................................
Page
30
Introduction
Photography can be a fun and exciting hobby or a rewarding, profitable career. It allows one to capture an image of a person or event exactly as it happens, as opposed to a painting, which relies on an artist's interpretation of the event. Photography has been used by courts to determine guilt or innocence and by insurance companies to prove the condition of an item, not to mention countless families to preserve memories. A simple picture can describe an object much more simply and completely than even a lengthy written description. It was once written a picture is worth a thousand words… it's true.
By definition, photography is capturing an image with light. Broken into its root words, it means light (photo) writing (graph). A light proof box, commonly called a camera, allows a metered amount of light to reach a light sensitive film, which is physically altered (exposed) by the light. This film can then be chemically altered (processed) to reproduce the picture. This unit will take you step by step through this process, from picture taking through development and mounting.
THE BASIC CAMERA
All cameras have the same basic parts:
· A light-tight box to keep light out and to serve as a frame to hold the other parts.
· A lens to collect the light reflected from a subject and form an image on the film. It may be a fixed focus lens (for normal picture- taking distances), autofocus, or manual focus.
· A lens opening (aperture) to control the intensity of the light reaching the film. The size of the lens opening may be fixed or it may be adjustable.
· A shutter to control the length of time that light reaches the film. The shutter keeps light out until you take a picture. Simple cameras have one or two shutter speeds. Advanced cameras have a wide range of shutter speeds. A fast shutter speed allows you to capture action scenes.
· A shutter release to open and close the shutter.
· A film-advance mechanism to advance the film for the next exposure.
· A viewfinder to show you the area you are taking pictures of.
· Flash. Some cameras have a built-in flash, while others have a flash shoe for holding a flash accessory.
Types of Cameras
Although all cameras are basically the same, some cameras offer certain features that others don't. There are basically three types of cameras: simple, adjustable, and automatic.
Simple Cameras
To make things easy, we'll call any camera simple if it doesn't offer adjustments for shutter speed, lens opening, and focus, and doesn't have an exposure-control system. Simple cameras have only one or two shutter speeds, and the focus may be preset by the factory for normal picture-taking distance--4 to 5 feet to infinity. Although some simple cameras have a fixed lens opening, others have an adjustment for two or three different lens openings. Set the lens opening according to the recommendations in your camera manual or in the film carton.
Adjustable Cameras
An adjustable camera has controls that allow you to take pictures under a wider range of conditions than is possible with a non-adjustable camera. The main controls are shutter speed, lens opening (aperture), and lens focus.
Shutter speed and aperture are used together to control exposure. The shutter speed not only affects how much light strikes the film, but also how movement in the scene is recorded. For example, if you want to stop the action of a fast-moving subject, use a very fast shutter speed such as 1/1000 second. Since a fast shutter speed allows less light to reach the film, you may have to use a larger lens opening to obtain a proper exposure. A large lens opening means smaller depth of field (range of focus in a picture).
In contrast, if you are photographing a garden flower close up and you want all of the flower petals to record sharply, use a small aperture such as f/16 to obtain good depth of field. Since a small aperture means less light striking the film, you may need to use a slow shutter speed to compensate.
Keep in mind that the large f-stops such as f/16 and f/22 refer to small lens openings and the small f-stops such as f/2.8 and f/4 represent large lens openings. An easy way to remember this is to think of the numbers in terms of fractions: 1/2.8 is larger than 1/16.
Automatic Cameras
An automatic camera is easy to use like a simple camera but has some of the picture-taking versatility of an adjustable camera. Automatic cameras have an exposure-control system that regulates the size of the lens opening or the shutter speed (or both).
FILM
Film is a light-sensitive material that records an image. Just as there are different types of cameras, there are different types of films. When you purchase a film, it is important that you get the right film for your particular needs. Keep the following in mind:
· Decide whether you want color prints, black-and-white prints, or color slides for projection. Each film type is intended primarily to make only one of these three kinds of pictures.
· Every camera uses film of a particular size, for example, 135, APS, or 110. Check the camera instruction manual to see what size film your camera uses. If you cannot locate your manual, take your camera with you when you buy film.
· Know about film speed when you purchase your film. Film speed is a number that indicates the film's sensitivity to light. The higher the number, the more sensitive the film is to light. For example, under dim lighting you should use a high-speed film such as 800 or 1000 Film. These films are also good for action shots, as they allow the camera to use faster shutter speeds to freeze the action. In bright sun, use a medium-speed film such as 100 or 200 Film for best quality.
Composition
Have you ever wondered why some pictures are more appealing than others . . .
. . . why some are left hanging in galleries for months or even years to be enjoyed by thousands?
One of the main reasons why some pictures are more outstanding than others is because of their strong composition.
Some arrangements are made by placing figures or objects in certain positions. Others are made by choosing a point of view. You can shift your camera very slightly and make quite a change in composition.
You'll find that the composition guidelines will become part of your thinking when you're looking for pictures, and soon they will become second nature to you. In this program, we'll discuss
· Simplicity
· The Rule of Thirds
· Lines
· Balance
· Framing
· Mergers
Think of these not as rules but as simple guidelines.
Simplicity
The first and perhaps the most important guideline is simplicity. Look for ways to give the center of interest in your pictures the most visual attention. One way is to select uncomplicated backgrounds that will not steal attention from your subjects.
Let's
see how we can improve the photo at left by looking for visual simplicity.
First let's decide if we want our center of interest to be the public telephone,
the bridge, or the cactus. We chose the cactus as the main subject. And by
moving in closer and using the plain sky as the background, we have simplified
and improved the appearance of this photograph.
We're
certainly close enough to our subject in both pictures, but the busy background
on the left camouflages the seagull. Just change your point of view slightly
and, presto, your seagull stands with visual prominence against the blue sky.
Compose your photograph so that your reason for taking the picture is clearly seen. Arrange other parts of the picture area in such a way as to complement what you choose to be the center of interest.
Remember: we're talking about composition simplicity, and here's another decision you'll probably have to make. How much of your subject should you include?
You can simplify your pictures and strengthen your center of interest by selecting uncomplicated backgrounds, avoiding unrelated subjects, and moving in close. If you want to make your center of interest even more dynamic, place it slightly off center in your frame.
Rule of Thirds
You
can use the rule of thirds as a guide in the off-center
placement of your subjects. Here's how it works. Before you snap the picture,
imagine your picture area divided into thirds both horizontally and vertically.
The intersections of these imaginary lines suggest four options for placing the
center of interest for good composition. The option you select depends upon the
subject and how you would like that subject to be presented.
We
picked the upper-right position for this subject so that we could see the full
shadow and most of the tracks that lead to the seagull.
You should always consider the path of moving subjects and, generally, leave space in front of them into which they can move. If you don't, here's what can happen! This jogger looks like she's going to run right out of the picture.
Lines
Lines
also play an important role in composition. This sculpture has some beautiful
lines, but they're obscured by the busy background. Let's simplify this picture
by moving our camera viewpoint in close to the base of the sculpture.
Now we can look up and see the lines against a clear blue sky. The picture on the right is much more dynamic because of the strong diagonal lines.
Balance
Good balance is simply the arrangement of shapes, colors, or areas of light and dark that complement one another so that the photograph looks well-balanced,
not lopsided like this. Karen looks like she's going to fall right out of the picture due to lack of visible support.
Now we've moved our camera viewpoint and have included the much-needed wheel to support our subject. Karen is still off center, but the picture is balanced.
Framing
Our fifth guideline for improving photographic composition is framing.
Framing
means to surround the center of interest with objects in the foreground. This
can give a picture the feeling of depth it needs to make it more than just
another snapshot.
Avoiding Mergers
The merger of this tree with Dave's
head is so obvious, you probably think no one could avoid seeing it before
snapping the shutter. Remember: we see things in three dimensions, so it's
easier than you might guess to focus our eyes on the principal subject only and
not see that background at all.
You can be sure the camera always sees mergers, so look for plain backgrounds before you pose your subject. In this case the correction was simple because the two settings were only a few feet apart.
You
can be sure the camera always sees mergers, so look for plain backgrounds before
you pose your subject. In this case the correction was simple because the two
settings were only a few feet apart.
Taking Pictures
A good subject is whatever appeals to you. Such subjects as a child's birthday party, a setting sun, a happy bride and groom, and a snow-capped mountain peak are favorites with almost everybody. But try the unusual too. Good pictures often begin by seeing the common subject in an uncommon way. Keep your imagination going with constant practice.
Keep the following things in mind.
· Photographing static subjects is fairly uncomplicated. You must deal with shallow depth of field and learn to control reflections. For practice, try making a close-up inventory of valuables in your home.
· In outdoor nature photography, you must learn to deal with motion. You can move the camera to follow the animal, a technique known as panning. Try to take the picture during the peak of action and have pleny of film, you never know when an animal will do something. A fast shutter speed or electronic flash will stop the motion of animals. Try to confine your subject without upsetting or hurting it. Another consideration outdoors is the background. Don't be afraid to change your backgrounds. Add a stick, stone, or piece of bark.. However, don't pick wildflowers; many are protected by law.
When you have finished photographing, return everything you moved to its original place. You can make your own backgrounds for outdoor photography. Using flat-finish oils, spread natural colors such as brown and green, orange and yellow, and blue and green onto cardboard. Blend the colors together to give an out-of-focus effect. Your photographs will be exotic and exciting.
LIGHT
To record a photographic image, film must be exposed to light. For good pictures, you must expose the film in your camera to the proper amount of light. If too little light reaches the film, your pictures will be too dark (underexposed). If too much light reaches the film, your pictures will be too light (overexposed). It is important to read the exposure data in your camera instruction manual or the film carton.
TIPS FOR BETTER PICTURES
No matter what camera and film you are using, you'll take better pictures if you remember the following tips:
· Hold the camera steady. Stand still and grip the camera firmly with both hands while holding your elbows close to your body. Gently squeeze the shutter release.
· Take close-ups of your subject when possible. With most cameras you can get as close as 4 or 5 feet. With some cameras you can get closer.
· Keep the picture simple. Have one center of interest and avoid cluttered or distracting backgrounds.
· Keep your subject busy. Have people doing something natural instead of staring at the camera.
· Include a foreground subject when photographing distant scenes.
Close-ups
Close-ups are almost always more interesting than a distance shot. That is because most people are interested in the details: the expression on someone's face, the color of their eyes, etc. A close-up of a person shows just the face and possibly the shoulders.
Because of many advances in cameras and lenses, close-up photography is now easy even for the beginning photographer.
Rules of the Road
Here are four simple rules that will guide you in learning how to take close-up photographs:
· Know your camera well enough so that you can focus, set the aperture and shutter speed, make the exposure, and advance the film without thinking too much about the sequence.
· Use a camera and lens of the best quality. Choose features that appeal to you for both conventional and close-up photography.
· Experiment with different camera angles and subject distances to view as many possibilities as you can before making the exposure. Consider what features you most want to show; then get close enough to fill the frame with the subject.
· Keep a written record of each exposure so that you can learn from your successes and your mistakes. Your notes should include the film type, the aperture and shutter speed, and the close-up equipment and lighting you used.
Close-Focusing Lenses
Close-focusing lenses, also called macro or micro lenses, are specially designed for close-up photography. You can also use them for normal subject distances all the way to infinity. They range from 50 to 200 mm in focal length.
Zoom Lenses
A zoom lens has a range of focal lengths. It is the equivalent of several fixed-focal-length lenses. By adjusting the zoom ring of a 28 to 80 mm zoom lens, you can use any focal length between 28 and 80 mm. Most zoom lenses have a macro mode for close-up photography. For the photographer who wants a versatile, general-purpose lens, a zoom lens with a macro mode would be ideal. However, for critical close-ups, a zoom lens in the macro mode will not let you get close enough for a 1:3 magnification ratio.
Along with your choice of close-up equipment, you will need several accessories:
A tripod is essential for many close-up situations. It will hold the camera steady, allow you to use slow shutter speeds, and give you more accuracy in focusing and framing.
Some ordinary black or white posterboard is good for backgrounds. White poster board or aluminum foil makes an excellent reflector when you need to bounce light onto your subject.
Lighting
Basically, light can strike your subject from three directions.
· Frontlighting strikes the front of your subject. This type of lighting is flat and reveals little texture.
· Sidelighting comes from either side of the subject. It brings out texture and produces shadows. If you want to lessen the shadows, use a white cardboard or aluminum foil reflector to bounce light into those areas. Make sure the reflector does not show in your photograph.
· Backlighting comes from behind the subject. Backlighting works well with translucent subjects such as leaves, revealing their intricate vein system. With an opaque subject, backlighting produces a silhouette.
Depth of Field
The distance range between the nearest and farthest objects that appear in acceptably sharp focus is called depth of field. When you are photographing at a moderate or long distance, the depth of field is great. The greater the magnification, the shallower the depth of field becomes.
Here are ways to increase depth of field in close-up photography:
· Use a shorter-focal-length lens or increase the camera-to-subject distance, to produce a smaller image on the film.
· Use a small aperture such as f/11 or f/16. This will also reduce the amount of light that reaches the film, so you may want to select a high-speed film, such as 400 Film. To use small lens openings with an autoexposure camera, change the exposure mode to aperture priority or manual.
Many close-up photographers use shallow depth of field to their advantage. You can focus sharply on one area of the subject, and let the rest of the photograph blur. This is called selective focus. The shallow depth of field emphasizes the subject by eliminating distracting backgrounds.
Processing
Processing and printing your own films can be rewarding and fun. With a little practice, you'll find it's easy, too. To make prints the same size as your negatives, you need a printing frame or an enlarger and a piece of glass to hold the light-sensitive photographic paper in contact with your negatives during exposure.
If you want to make enlargements, you need an enlarger with a negative holder that's the right size for your negatives. You also need an easel to hold the paper in position below the enlarger lens. Because photographic films and papers are sensitive to light, you must handle them in a darkroom.
To process film, you'll need a darkroom only while you're loading the film into a lighttight film-developing tank. But during this time, the room must be totally dark. For printing and enlarging, you do not need total darkness. Just be sure that the only light in the room is supplied by a suitable safelight lamp with an OC Safelight Filter, and keep the photographic paper at least 4 feet from the lamp. Note: For your safety, handle photographic chemicals and processing solutions with care, and keep them out of the reach of children.
To process black-and-white film, you'll need the following solutions:
· Film developer
· Stop bath
· Fixer
Mix all solutions before loading your film into the film tank. The solutions should be at a temperature of 65 to 75°F (18 to 24°C) when you use them. You can cool or warm the solutions quickly by setting the bottles of solution in a pan of cold or warm water.
Loading the Developing Reel:
To load the developing reel, you will need the following items:
· Diagonal cutting pliers or a can opener
· Scissors
· Developing tank
· Tank lid
· Developing reel
· Darkroom bag or other black bag
· Exposed roll of film
Place all items necessary for loading the reel in darkroom or in bag. Then turn off the lights and remove the lid of the film cartridge with the cutoff pliers. Remember the film cannot be exposed to light. Push film out of cartridge and cut the end of the film so that it is straight. Now load the film into the developing reel and load the reel into the developing tank. Place the lid on the developing tank and make sure it is on correctly.
Handling the film by the edges, load it onto the reel according to the instructions for your tank. Then follow the processing steps in the table below:
|
Processing Step |
Time |
Agitation and Notes |
|
1. Developer |
Use the development time for your film/developer/temperature combination given in the film or developer instructions. |
Smoothly lower the loaded film reel into the developer solution in the tank, and attach the top to the tank. Turn on the lights. Firmly tap the tank on the top of the work surface to dislodge air bubbles. Provide initial agitation for 5 seconds, and then repeat the 5-second agitation at 30-second intervals for the remainder of the development time. (See the table below for agitation techniques for different types of tanks.) Drain the tank. |
|
2. Stop Bath |
30 seconds |
Pour in the stop bath, and agitate continuously. Drain the tank. |
|
3. Fixer |
2 to 4 minutes |
Pour in the fixer. Agitate continuously for the first 30 seconds, and then at 30-second intervals. Drain the tank. |
|
4. Rinse |
30 seconds |
Rinse the film in the tank under running water. |
|
5. Hypo Clearing Agent |
1 to 2 minutes |
Agitate continuously for the first 30 seconds and then at 30-second intervals. |
|
6. Water Wash |
5 minutes after Hypo Clearing Agent |
Remove the top from the tank. Run the wash water at least fast enough to provide a complete change of water in the tank in 5 minutes. For rapid washing in a small tank, fill the tank to overflowing with fresh water and then dump it all out. Repeat this cycle 10 times. |
|
7. Wetting Agent |
30 seconds |
Provide gentle agitation for 5 seconds of the total time. |
|
8. Dry |
As necessary |
Remove the film from the reel, and hang it up to dry in a clean, dust-free place. |
After processing, thoroughly wash and dry all equipment that came into contact with chemical solutions. When the film is thoroughly dry, cut it into shorter strips of negatives to make proof sheets.
Always store your negatives in sleeves or envelopes away from dust and extreme temperature and humidity. Cut your negatives into strips of 6. Fold a sheet of paper in half along its length like a hotdog. Put three staples into the sheet, one at the bottom, and two on the open side, one toward the bottom and one in the middle. Leave the top open.
MAKING PRINTS
Black-and-white photographic papers are available in a wide variety of sizes, speeds, contrasts, surface textures, image tones, stock tints, and weights. To start, we will you use resin coated paper for both your contact prints and your enlargements . The resin coating on this paper permits short processing and drying times. When you expose it with filters, you can produce different degrees of contrast in the prints you make from one package of paper.
Making a Proof Sheet
Proof sheets are photographic prints that include many images from strips of negatives. The print images are the same size as your negatives. They can help you choose the best negatives for enlarging, and they also make a good record of your prints to file with your negatives.
To make a proof sheet, you'll need your strips of negatives and a printing frame with a 7-watt light bulb or an enlarger and a piece of glass.
You can make a printing frame by using a piece of window glass or clear Plexiglas and a piece of composition board. Both pieces should be the same size. Put one piece on top of the other and use wide adhesive tape to make a hinge connecting the two pieces. (If you use glass, it's a good idea to tape the remaining edges so that you won't cut yourself.)
Before exposing your proof sheet, prepare your paper-processing solutions. You'll need the following chemicals:
· Paper developer
· Stop bath
· Fixer
You can use the same type of stop bath and fixer that you used to process your film, but be sure you mix it properly. Most fixers require a 1:3 dilution for use with film and a 1:7 dilution for paper. (See the fixer instructions.)
Mix the developer, stop bath, and fixer according to the instructions packaged with the chemicals, and store the solutions in labeled bottles.
When you are ready to make your proof sheets, arrange four trays on the work surface in your darkroom. Label them "Developer," "Stop Bath," "Fixer," and "Wash."
Working from left to right, pour the developer in the first tray, stop bath into the second tray, and fixer into the third tray. Fill these trays to a depth of about one-half inch of solution. Fill the fourth tray with water. Adjust the solutions to 65 to 70°F (18 to 21°C) by placing a small, deep bowl of either warm or cool water into the tray of solution. Be careful not to spill any water into the solutions.
Be sure your hands are clean and dry before handling your negatives and paper. Now you are ready to expose your proof sheet. Follow these steps:
· Turn out all lights except the recommended safelight (see the label on the package for the recommended safelight illumination). The safelight should be at least 4 feet from the paper. Remove one sheet of paper from the package, and rewrap the remaining paper to protect it from the printing light.
· Place your strips of negatives so that their emulsion side faces the emulsion side of the paper. Cover the paper and negatives with the glass. The negatives should face the light source.
· Make the exposure.
If you're using a printing frame and a 7-watt bulb, hang the bare bulb 2 feet above the frame and turn it on for about 10 seconds. A 10-second exposure should be right, but you may have to experiment to get the correct exposure. If the processed print appears too light, make another proof sheet with double the exposure time; if it's too dark, use half the time.
If you're using an enlarger light source to make your proof sheet, place the empty negative carrier in the enlarger, and set the lens at f/11. Adjust the enlarger height so that the light covers an area just larger than the size of your paper. Expose for about 10 seconds. Again, you may have to experiment to get the correct time.
Processing Your Proof Sheet
· Take the exposed paper from the printing frame or enlarger easel and slide it completely into the developer, emulsion side down. Then turn the paper over, and agitate by rocking the tray gently throughout the development time (30 sec).
· Take the paper out of the developer and let it drain for 5 seconds. Then immerse it in the stop-bath solution for at least 30 seconds, agitating thoroughly as in Step 1.
· Remove the paper from the stop bath, drain it for 5 seconds, and slip it into the fixer. Agitate frequently for 4 minutes. You can turn on the room lights after about 30 seconds. (If you have more than one print in the tray, keep them separated.) Do not overfix.
· Transfer your print to the wash tray. Wash for 4 minutes in gently running water at a temperature between 50 and 85°F (10 and 30°C). Avoid overwashing.
· Dry the print on a flat surface at room temperature with good air circulation. You can speed drying by blowing warm air from a portable hair dryer onto the print. Make sure that the temperature of the air is below 190°F (88°C).
ENLARGING
Your proof sheet should serve as a good guide for selecting the negatives you want to enlarge. Study the images to find the ones with the best composition and exposure level (neither too dark nor too light). When you've selected a negative you want to enlarge, it's a good idea to make a test strip or print to determine the exposure you need to make a good enlargement. (After you've gained some experience, you won't need to make a test strip or print for every negative you print.)
Making Test Exposure Strips and Prints
Test exposure prints and strips serve the same function, but are different in size. A test print is a sheet of photographic paper exposed and processed to find out if your exposure and contrast estimates are correct. (Although your first test print may look good enough to be the final print, don't be disappointed if it doesn't.)
A test exposure strip is a 1- or 2-inch-wide strip of enlarging paper cut from a larger sheet. It's more economical to expose test strips than full test prints.
When you're satisfied with your exposure test, place a sheet of paper, emulsion side up, under the masking guides on the enlarger easel. Turn on the enlarger and expose for the time determined by your tests. Turn off the enlarger. Remove the sheet of paper, process it, and dry it.
Safe Disposal of Used Chemicals
Note: For your safety, handle photographic chemicals and processing solutions with care, and keep them out of the reach of children.
Be sure to dispose of chemicals properly. To a large extent, exactly how you do that will depend on what the chemicals are, the volume of the solutions you discard, and whether you are discharging them into a sewer or into a septic system. Generally, you can pour small amounts of used photographic solutions down the drain without ill effect. Discard the solutions one at a time (to avoid unwanted chemical reactions). Rinse the sink thoroughly and flush the drain with plenty of clean water after dumping each solution. Because the discharge or disposal of spent photographic solutions may be subject to local, state, or federal laws, contact the appropriate authorities to determine the requirements that apply to your area.
Glossary
Backlighting
Light shining on the back of the subject facing the camera. Appears as a halo around the subject. The subject appears as a silhouette.
Close-Up
A picture taken with the subject close to the camera-usually less than two or three feet away, but it can be as close as a few inches.
Continuous Tone
An image that exhibits a smooth gradation of tones or shades of gray from
light to dark. Continuous-tone images may be positive or negative and have
high or low contrast.
Contrast
The difference in brightness between the lightest and darkest tones of an image or scene. Images or scenes that exhibit very light to very dark tones with few intermediate tones are called “high-contrast.” “Low-contrast” images are usually characterized by a short range of tones—such as middle gray to dark gray, without any black or white.
Contact Print
A print made by exposing photographic paper while it is held tightly against the negative. Images in the print will be the same size as those in the negative.
Cropping
Printing only part of the image that is in the negative or slide, safelight
Darkroom
A lighttight area used for processing films and for printing and processing papers; also for loading and unloading film holders and some cameras.
Definition
The clarity of detail in a photograph.
Density
The blackness of an area in a negative or print that determines the amount of light that will pass through it or reflect from it. Sometimes referred to as contrast.
Depth of Field
The amount of distance between the nearest and farthest objects that appear in acceptably sharp focus in a photograph. Depth of field depends on the lens opening, the focal length of the lens, and the distance from the lens to the subject.
Developer
A solution used to turn the latent image into a visible image on exposed films or photographic papers.
Emulsion
Micro-thin layers of gelatin on film in which light-sensitive ingredients are suspended; triggered by light to create a chemical reaction resulting in a photographic image.
Emulsion Side
The side of the film coated with emulsion. In contact printing and enlarging, the emulsion side of the film-dull side-should face the emulsion side of the photo paper-shiny side.
Enlargement
A print that is larger than the negative or slide; blowup.
Enlarger
A device consisting of a light source, a negative holder, and a lens, and means of adjusting these to project an enlarged image from a negative onto a sheet of photographic paper.
Exposure
The quantity of light allowed to act on a photographic material; a product of the intensity (controlled by the lens opening) and the duration (controlled by the shutter speed or enlarging time) of light striking the film or paper.
Film
A photographic emulsion coated on a flexible, transparent base that records images or scenes.
Fixing Bath
A solution that removes any light-sensitive silver-halide crystals not acted upon by light or developer, leaving a black-and-white negative or print unalterable by further action of light. Also referred to as hypo.
Flash
A brief, intense burst of light from a flashbulb or an electronic flash unit, usually used where the lighting on the scene is inadequate for picture-taking.
f-stop Number
A number that indicates the size of the lens opening on an adjustable camera. The common f-stops are f/1.4, f/2, f/2.8, f/4, f/5.6, f/8, f/11, f/16, and f/22. The larger the f-stop, the smaller the lens opening. In this series, f/1.4 is the largest lens opening and f/22 is the smallest. F-stops work in conjunction with shutter speeds to indicate exposure settings.
Focal Length
The distance between the film and the optical center of the lens when the lens is focused on infinity. The focal length of the lens on most adjustable cameras is marked in millimetres on the lens mount.
Focus
Adjustment of the distance setting on a lens to define the subject sharply.
Focus Range
The range within which a camera is able to focus on the selected picture subject - 4 feet to infinity - for example.
Frontlighting
Light shining on the side of the subject facing the camera.
ISO Speed
The emulsion speed (sensitivity) of the film as determined by the standards of the International Standards Organization. In these standards, both arithmetic (ASA) and logarithmic (DIN) speed values are expressed in a single ISO term. For example, a film with a speed of ISO 100/21° would have a speed of ASA 100 or 21 DIN.
Lens
One or more pieces of optical glass or similar material designed to collect and focus rays of light to form a sharp image on the film, paper, or projection screen.
Line or Line Copy
An image exhibiting only solid blocks or lines of tone with no tonal gradations, such as text on a page. These images may be positive or negative.
Negative
The developed film that contains a reversed tone image of the original scene.
Negative Holder
A device designed to hold the negative in proper position in an enlarger.
Overexposure
A condition in which too much light reaches the film, producing a dense negative or a very light print or slide.
Panorama
A broad view, usually scenic.
Positive
A photographic image with light-to-dark tonal values similar to those in the original scene. The result of the photographic process is usually a positive image. If it is on paper or a similar opaque support, it’s called a print. If the positive image is on a clear support, such as glass or film, it’s called a transparency or slide.
A print is usually a positive image on an opaque support, such as fiber-base or resin- coated paper. The image is viewed by light reflected from the print surface.
Shutter
Blades, a curtain, plate, or some other movable cover in a camera that controls the time during which light reaches the film.
Sidelighting
Light striking the subject from the side relative to the position of the camera; produces shadows and highlights to create modeling on the subject.
Simple Camera
A camera that has few or no adjustments to be made by the picture-taker. Usually, simple cameras have only one size of lens opening and one or two shutter speeds and do not require focusing by the picture-taker.
Single-Lens-Reflex (SLR) Camera
A camera in which you view the scene through the same lens that takes the picture.
Slide
A photographic transparency (positive) mounted for projection.
Stop Bath
An acid rinse, usually a weak solution of acetic acid, used as a second step when developing black-and-white film or paper. It stops development and makes the hypo (fixing bath) last longer.
Tone
The degree of lightness or darkness in any given area of a print; also referred to as value. Cold tones (bluish) and warm tones (reddish) refer to the color of the image in both black-and-white and color photographs.
Transparency
A positive photographic image on film, viewed or projected by transmitted light (light shining through film).
Tripod
A three-legged supporting stand used to hold the camera steady. Especially useful when using slow shutter speeds and/or telephoto lenses.
Wide-Angle Lens
A lens that has a shorter focal length and a wider field of view (includes more subject area) than a normal lens.
Zoom Lens
A lens in which you can adjust the focal length over a wide range. In effect, this gives you lenses of many focal lengths.