Christmas in Poland
In Poland, as in many of the Slavic countries, the Star of Betlehem is a dominant symbol around which the observance of Christmas revolves.  The gleam of the first star in the evening sky on Christmas Eve means that the long fast of Advent is over.  When the evening meal is served, small white wafers (oplatki) are eaten by each member of the family.  This time-honored practice of the breaking of bread, symbolizing peace and friendship, takes its inspiration from the Sacred Host served at Holy Communion.  Formerly, the clergy distributed packages of these wafers, made of white flour and water, to each family in the village.  Available in quantity, they were blessed by the village priest, who called at the various homes to perform this simple ceremony; in some communities, it was taken in baskets to the church for the blessing.  A vacant chair at the table devoutly believed was present in spirit.  After supper, the Star Man (sometimes the village priest in disguise of some well-infromed neighbor) appeared to examine the children in their catechism.  Those who responded with correct answers were given token presents, but those who failed were given a reprimand by the Star Man.  Children believed that the gifts came from the stars but were carried to them by the Wise Men, impersonated by three young men of the village, known as Star Boys.  Usually, the Star Boys were accompanied by groups of young people dressed in animal costumes or as characters of the Nativity.  Some of the animals represented were those that were present at the manger in Betlehem, while others, based on old folk beliefs, were introduced for sheer amusement.  This bit of burlesque offered an opportunity to call on the neighbors, for whom the performers sang carols and were given a treat in return.  Although the custom was not limited to Poland, the showing of the Joselki or mangers during the week between Christmas and New Year's Day was a charming bit of religious drama that reached back to earlier times.  They were small traveling theaters much like the type used for puppet shows featuring Punch and Judy.  Episodes from the life of Christ were featured in these little peep shows, which were adapted from the old miracle and mystery plays.
A layer of straw placed on the gamily table under the cloth helped to create the atmosphere of the stable where the Christ Child was born.  More straw, scattered on the floor, served the same purpose.  A small table placed before the family shrine contained the Christmas candles and special pastries baked for the festive season.  Pasterka, the Mass of the Shepherds, is heard by the family on Christmas Eve at midnight.  On St. Sylvester's Eve, December 31st, according to an old Polish belief everyone is his own master, free to pursue his own desires.  Often this is the time when old superstitions foretelling the future are enjoyed.
Christmas in Russia
For centuries, that most versatile and generous of saints, Nicholas of Myra, has been the patron of Russia.  It is claimed that Vladimir the Great, grand prince of Russia, went to Constantinople early in the 11th century to be baptized and brought back tales of the wonders of Nicholas.  Thus, Nicholas was chosen as the protector of a country that covers one sixth of the surface of the world.  Among the many talents attributed to him are protection of the weak against the strong, the oppressed againts the oppressor, and the poor against the rich.  Many churches in Russia were dedicated to him, and his name has been a favorite for boys in every station of life from that of the lowliest peasant to the Tzar.
The carols known as Kolyadki, which have their roots in pagan culture, are still enjoyed.  Father Christmas, now known as Grandfather Frost, and the Christmas tree (at present referred to more commonly as the New Year tree) are relics of an earlier tradition, despite their new names.  In old Russia, it was Babouschka was brought the gifts to the children.  She is the counterpart of the Italian Befana.  With the appearance of the evening star on Christmas Eve, the Advent fast was over and the Colatzia or supper was served on a table with a layer of straw beneath the cloth, symbolizing the Christ Child's bed in the manger.  An ancient family ritual on Christmas Eve in Russia was eating thin white wafers, sometimes with honey or syrup (known as the "bread of angels" in Lithuania).  Various episodes of the Nativity were imprinted on the wafers which the head of the family served to his wife and children as a symbol of love and peace.  Following the meal, various members of the family paraded about the neighborhood singing carols, dressed in costumes representing bears, goats, and the stable animals present at Betlehem.  Chidlren were told that Kolya (Nicholas) always placed wheat cakes on thw windowsill for them on Christmas Eve.  These had to be eaten on Chistmas Day.  In Russia, in the days of the Tzars, a carol with the opening line "Glory be to God in heaven, Glory!" which called down blessings on the Tzar and his people, was sung.  In bygone days, a white-robed maiden known as Kolyada was driven in a sled from house to house on Christmas Eve.  (She appears to be a parallel to the Christkind, familiar in Germany).  The young people who attended her sang carols as they traveled about and were rewarded with gifts.  Kolyada, the name for Christmas, comes from Kalendae, the winter festivals observed in pagan times.  In Little Russia, families used to eat honey and porridge on Christmas Eve.  They called it koutia, and cherished the custom since it distinguished them from the Great and the White Russians.  Each dish was believed to represent the Holy Crib; first porridge was placed in it (putting straw in the manger); then each member of the family helped himself to honey and fruit, which symbolized the Babe (fruit for the body, honey for the spirit).  Another old belief was centered around sheaves of corn which were piled upon a table, in the midst of which a large pie was placed.  The father of the family took his seat behind the sheaves and asked his children if they could see him.  "We cannot see you", they would reply. Then, in poetic language, the father made a speech stating that he hoped the corn would grow so high in his fields that he would be invisible to his children when he walked there at harvest-time.  A favorite sport among girls in country districts during the Christmas season was a game called "the burial of the gold".  They formed a circle, with one girl in the center, and passed a gold ring from hand to hand while the maiden within the circle tried to detect the direction in which the ring was moving.  Some folklore scholars believe the ring represented the sun which was buried in the clouds during much of the winter.  Another form of superstition which provided no end of amusement involved five piles of grain which were placed on the kitchen floor.  Each pile was given a name----such as hope, ring, charcoal, money, thread.  Then a drowsy hen was brought in and allowed to walk around the kitchen.  Whichever pile she moved to first indicated a particular trend for the future.  Hope meant a long journey or the realization of a wish.  The ring signified marriage; charcoal foretold death within the family; money was a sure sign of wealth.  Thread, on the other hand, indicated a life of hard work.