• Professional writer of
  materials

• Issues of concern to
  professional materials
  writers

“We must consider our students’ cultural histories, their purposes for studying English, and the context in which English is to be used.” (p. 4)

The variety of ESL/EFL audiences shouldn’t be taken for granted when materials writers design textbooks. Materials writers are constantly challenged to prepare materials suitable to the diverse cultural backgrounds of ESL/EFL learners. Another factor to be considered is the learner’s purpose for studying English. While ESL learners study English primarily for communication purposes, especially to succeed in the workplace, learners in foreign countries study English for several reasons, such as, business, educational, or leisure purposes. This difference in purposes for studying English lead us to another factor that materials writers should take in account, the context in which English is to be used. Inside the broad ESL/EFL contexts is a range of subcontexts that cannot be forgotten. One example of the necessity of materials in particular contexts is the presence of courses in English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Specific Purposes (ESP). 
 

• Body of knowledge
  about materials writing

• Materials writer as a
  craftsperson

 "In many respects, the materials writer-as-craftsperson stands as a mediator between the output of scholar/researchers ("theorists") and teachers/learners." (p. 15)

Scholar/researchers are basically concerned with theoretical issues about teaching ESL/EFL. On the other hand, teachers and learners are involved in the practical aspects of teaching/learning language. However, materials writers should build up a balance between theory and practice when designing teaching materials. That may be the reason why most of the ESL/EFL materials are prepared for teachers, usually monitored or assisted by researchers and their respective researches. Therefore, craft knowledge in materials design becomes an important issue to support teachers who have good ideas that could be published. It seems that the development of craft knowledge would help the advance of materials design in ESL/EFL teaching. 
 

• Practical overview of
  the process of materials
  writing

• Teacher's path through
  the production of new
  or adapted materials

"It's not until a teacher has attempted to produce her own materials that she finally begins to develop a set of criteria to evaluate materials produced by others." (p. 111)

Teachers who develop their own materials seem to be much more concerned about their students’ particular needs. In fact, they don’t limit their teaching to published materials but try to overcome the absence of specific activities that could help learners to improve their knowledge. Moreover, teachers who develop materials to their classes may become much more careful in selecting teaching materials as they are sensitive to the differences of each group of students, such as, age, level of education, cultural background, and so on. In this way, teachers that are also materials writers turn out to be good critiques of their own materials and finally of materials produced by others.
 

• Multi-syllabus

• Perspective on the
  learner

"Several of the English language teaching materials now available attempt to incorporate some consideration of learner characteristics into their methodology." (p. 56)

Researchers have suggested that individual differences may affect learner's performance in the classroom. For example, learning styles have been an important issue that is being enclosed in teaching materials. The assumption that visual learners retain language differently of auditory or kinesthetic learners has influenced the development of materials that cover the diverse learning styles. Other individual variables to be taken in account are personality, motivation, attitude, aptitude, and intelligence. All of them may influence, although in different levels, learners’ functioning in L2 learning. Thus, when textbooks and/or teaching materials are concerned with individual differences, learners are more likely to succeed in their learning.
 

• teaching grammar

• the three e's:
  explanations, examples,
  and exercises

“A textbook is written for two audiences: teachers and students. The materials that make up the text should provide a teacher with a range of resources to meet the neeeds of her/his students.” (p. 46)

In the past, textbooks were seen as teaching guides. They were exhaustively and extensively used by teachers and students. The chapters were usually presented in a sequence so they could not be skipped or left for later. In more recent years, the role of textbooks in language teaching has been changing. Nowadays, textbooks are considered a “collection or resources” from what teachers can base their classes on. They are much more flexible, i.e., teachers can make use of the activities that seem more helpful to learners while other activities are not used at all. These qualities give much more autonomy to teachers who can use materials according to learners’ needs. 

“A textbook needs to be a coherent yet flexible collection of resources for a teacher to use as the script for realizing the instructional purposes for a course.” (p. 45)

The idea of a textbook as a collection of resources and a script is interesting. As a collection of resources textbooks should present variety not only of activities but also of the way these activities are designed. Materials designers should always take into account the different learning styles when developing textbooks. With a flexible collection of resources teachers can adapt the materials according to their students’ needs and purposes for a course. Therefore, the textbook works as a script to be followed but at the same time it can always be adjusted by its first user, the teacher. 
 

• Corpus linguistics

• Corpus-based research

“Corpus linguistics leads to a description of grammar that is consistent with native speaker use, accounts for variation in a systematic way, and is useful for English language teachers and students.” (P. 558)

The empirical study of language is likely to change the way grammar has been taught.  First of all, research has shown that language patterns may vary from register to register. Therefore, register variation is likely to be part of grammar materials. Secondly, vocabulary will probably be combined with the teaching of grammar, especially because the most common words can be taught initially. Finally, in the case of teaching alternative grammatical construction, corpus analyses may clarify when the constructions are used and what is the best common among native speakers.

“Corpus-based research has consistently shown that grammatical patterns differ systematically across varieties of English.” (p. 549)

English variety is not only related to different social groups. In fact, corpus-based research has shown that it also varies across registers, i.e., in the different purposes and situations of language use. Teachers can have more suitable and effective lesson plans if they are aware of registers. They can, for example, emphasize the most common grammatical forms according to corpus linguistics. Based on research, they can also make decisions about the sequence they will teach grammar, usually from the most useful to the less. 
 
 

• Grammar activity
  inventory

• Variety of categories

"This inventory is presented as a reference for both material writers and classroom teachers who are either interested in information on what the current state of textbook activities is or who want to alter the direction of current textbook development with new or different exercise types."

Grammar activities are common in the language classroom. However, teachers and materials writers should think about their audience when choosing or developing materials. The variety is important to assure all learning styles are covered and all learners are equally 
benefited. 

“An additional type of instruction we expected to find throughout all the books but did not was information on learning strategies.”

Although teachers and researchers are concerned about teaching learning strategies, textbooks usually do not give attention to this issue. The lack of learning strategies in textbooks increases teachers’ responsibility to create materials to help their students how to learn effectively. If materials designers took in consideration the necessity of developing activities that involve learning strategies, they would be lightening the teachers’ burden. 
 

• Three-dimensional
  grammar framework

• Learning and teaching
  processes

“By thinking of grammar as a skill to be mastered, rather than a set of rules to be memorized, we will be helping ESL/EFL students go a long way toward the goal of being able to accurately convey meaning in the manner they deem appropriate.” (p. 255)

Grammatical form has always been given an important place in language learning. Larsen-Freeman also points out the importance of meaning and context. Thus, in order to teach grammar communicatively we should consider grammar from three angles: form, meaning and context. More than just memorizing grammar rules, teachers should help learners to be able to “use” grammar. Firstly, through meaningful practice, learners may understand the meaning of language structures. Moreover, what is grammatically correct is not always considered proper. Learners should learn that appropriateness is related to the context.

“Since our goal is to achieve a better fit between grammar and communication, it is not helpful to think of grammar as a discrete set of meaningless, decontextualized, static structures.” (p. 252)

Grammar should be taught in context, with authentic examples. When learning a second language, learners need to be exposed to real language and be taught how to respond to several situations they are likely to encounter. Teachers who are concerned about teaching English grammar communicatively cannot separate form from meaning and language use. The three parts of the grammar framework should interconnect and give balance to language learning. 
 

• General Service List
  (GSL)

• Academic Word List
  (AWL)

“An academic word list should play a crucial role in setting vocabulary goals for language courses, guiding learners in their independent study, and informing course and material designers in selecting texts and developing learning activities.” (p. 214)

The aim of word lists is not only to facilitate vocabulary learning but also assist learners to acquire the words that are frequent in the language. It does not mean the less frequent words are less important. But, as they are not constant, they can be put on hold until learners get the most used vocabulary firstly. Coxhead presents a list of the most common words in the academic context. The list provides a helpful resource for teachers, materials writers, and learners. 

“The use of this research method, however, does not imply that language teaching and learning should rely on decontextualised methods. Instead, the AWL might be used to set vocabulary goals for EAP courses, construct relevant teaching materials, and help students focus on useful vocabulary items.” (p. 227)

As research points out, vocabulary should be taught and not just assimilated naturally. The Academic Word List (AWL), the result of research on academic vocabulary, represents a useful tool for teachers, learners and materials designers. Learners may focus on the words they need to memorize to succeed in the academic setting. Also, teachers and materials designers may design activities involving the most used words in the academic environment what would be useful to learners. 

• Implicit/Explicit learning

• Vocabulary learning
  strategies

In the past, it was believed that vocabulary was learned naturally. Nowadays, the importance of vocabulary learning has grown since it is proved that learners need assistance to acquire new words. Therefore, teachers and materials designers should be aware of research in this area. Moreover, they should be aware of techniques and activities that improve vocabulary learning, which can be beneficial to L2 learners. 

    “The principle behind interference is something like this. If two or more items share some strongly related common features and they are learned together at the same time, the similar features make them become strongly associated with each other, and the differences interfere with each other.” (p. 8-9)

Learning vocabulary involves a cognitive process. In the attempt to prevent problems in the process, vocabulary to be learned shouldn’t be presented in sets, i.e., words that are directly related to each other. Thus, interference in vocabulary learning is a problem that should be avoided. Both teachers and learners should be conscious of the problem and receive instruction in how to prevent it. At the same time, materials designers should be careful when choosing vocabulary to be used in textbooks. 
 

• Computer Assisted
  Vocabulary Acquisition (CAVOCA)

• Use of computers in vocabulary learning

 “The overall conclusion must be that there is no simple answer to the key question what form the most efficient method of L2 word learning should take. It depends very much on variables like degree of L1-L2 equivalence of the words to be learned, the intensity (both qualitative and quantitative) of processing, the age and cognitive level of the learner, the quantity and quality of rehearsal practice etc. More experimentation systematically controlling these variables is needed to gather data that will provide more insight into their relative importance. Instruments like CAVOCA may help provide such data.” (p. 78)

Even a computer programme created especially to aid vocabulary learning is not totally efficient. Several factors may contribute, facilitate or, on the other hand, difficult vocabulary acquisition. However, all attempts are valid to help learners in their struggling to acquire a second/foreign language. As the author points out more research is needed to find out in what extent the variables influence vocabulary learning.

"Functional language proficiency, however, requires mastery of a considerably larger number of words. It is therefore necessary at the intermediate and advanced stages of language acquisition to learn a large vocabulary in a short period of time." (p. 60)

In the learners’ struggle to master a second language, vocabulary learning stands in an important position. However, time is a constraint. L2 learners, contrarily to L1 learners, need to attain new words in a short period of time. The use of a computer program like CAVOCA intends to help learners to achieve the goal of learning as many words as possible in less time. 
 

• Interference between
  related words
• Repetition, reinforcement and recalling

 “Learning new words is a cumulative process, with words being enriched and established as they are met again. Learning related words in sets is not a good idea for initial learning.” (p. 6)

Learning vocabulary is related to repetition, reinforcement, and recalling. However, there is a difference between beginners and more advanced L2 learners in respect of learning vocabulary. While advanced learners may take advantage of related words, research indicates that beginners are not benefited from learning words in sets. With this finding, teachers and materials designers should update the way vocabulary is presented to make the teaching of vocabulary more valuable. 

“Strategies should aid both in discovering the meaning of a new word and in consolidating a word once it has been encountered.” (p. 290)

Self-study is also necessary to build up vocabulary. Therefore, strategies are of great importance to help learners retain new vocabulary and strength the meaning of the new words. Teachers and materials designers that are aware of this specific need can provide students with opportunities to learn strategies. Besides it, they can help L2 students to learn how to make use of these strategies to speed up the process of acquiring vocabulary. 
 

• Independent vocabulary
  learning strategies

• Vocabulary growth and development is important for NS and NNS

 “Students need to develop independent learning strategies that will allow them to expand their vocabularies both in and out of the classroom. Without a commitment to vocabulary instruction, our ESL students will find themselves at a ‘loss for words’, unable to function adequately in L2 contexts.” (p. 39)

Words are the basis of communication. Therefore, the process of learning new words is important in L2 learning. Learners should be encouraged to keep learning vocabulary not only in the classroom but also outside it. Both teachers and materials designers should help learners to become aware of vocabulary learning and at the same time give them instruction in how to learn vocabulary effectively and efficiently. 

“Vocabulary is a language area that needs continued growth and development for native and nonnative speakers alike. In the L2 context, although no foolproof methods for vocabulary instruction have been prescribed, ESL/EFL professionals now recognize vocabulary as an area of increasing importance, one which merits systematic attention in the classroom.” (p. 38)

In the past, it was believed that L2 students acquired new vocabulary by listening to the language, i.e., naturally. Later, it was proved that vocabulary could be learned and should be learned in the classroom. Nowadays, teachers and materials designers are conscious of the importance of teaching vocabulary. Consequently, vocabulary teaching has been given much more attention in the classroom. 
 

• Academic writing

• Process approach

This course is designed for international students who need to develop their writing skills in order to get in mainstream courses in the academic setting. Writing and grammar are the basis of the instruction. The specific needs of learners in this course involve writing skills, such as, gathering information, supporting their point of view, explaining, and describing. The grammar topics that need more attention are preposition use, verb tenses, phrasal verbs, participles (ing/ed), fragments, and word forms.

Thinking about activities on the web that can help ESL 0640 students, I remembered Frank Smith's comment. He said learners don't want only to do an activity in the Web and get the score. They want more than that. They expect to know what they did wrong, and to get an explanation in how to do it right the next time. A website should be a tool to help them build up knowledge and not only a place for games and fun.

• Editing

• Peer Revision

"Looking Ahead" is a writing and grammar textbook for ESL students. Designed to help learners to achieve better academic writing skills, the book contains seven chapters. In each chapter, learners work with specific writing and grammar goals. The book provides examples in each writing focus, besides explanations, and assignments. Also, readings provide vocabulary development and content for grammar activities. At the end of the book, learners can find the Grammar and Language Reference (GLR), an extra reference that supplies explanations and examples on each grammar topic seen along the textbook.

In chapter 4 of "Looking Ahead 3" students learn how to make an evaluation based on accepted criteria, and use a variety of types of evidence to support their evaluation. The main topic in the chapter is "eating habits". There are three main readings, which focus on the eating habits of three cultures or subcultures, !Kung, American college students, and Japanese. In the pre-reading and post-reading activities, the new vocabulary is emphasized and reinforced. Following, techniques in how to gather information, select criteria for evaluation, how to evaluate each criterion, and how to make an overall judgment are presented. The grammar points involve the use of numbers to show factual evidence, transition words and phrases, comparisons, quotations, and passive sentences.

• Evaluation for selection of textbooks

• Analysis for implementation of textbooks and other materials

"For teachers, use of a textbook involves first the selection of a book and then the steps taken to implement the book in class." (p. 415)

The use of materials to teach language is not just a matter of choosing the right textbook. In fact, in most of the cases teachers are imposed the materials they will be using in the classroom, and don't usually have power to make a decision. Even if they have the opportunity of choosing the textbook, it does not mean their work is done. As a matter of fact, teachers should consider the implementation of materials as a common and necessary procedure. It happens firstly because learners and their needs are diverse. These differences should be taken into account. Besides, other needs may appear during the length of a course, and they should not be taken for granted.

"In discussions written by some teacher educators, a common demand is that teachers be free agents -creating their own materials for their own students." (p. 422)

Freedom in their own classroom may be the most important thing teachers want in their work as educators. However, we see in this article that it is not always this way. In some countries teachers are supposed to use the materials that are assigned by the Board of Education. In other situations, the school administration assigns the textbook that is going to be used in the classroom. In both cases, the only alternative to teacher educators is to implement the materials they already have. This way, they can accomplish their students' needs and expectations at the same time they feel helpful.

• Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)

• Usability testing

"As instructors developing CALL materials, we found student feedback not only useful, but critical in creating quality materials. Numerous important considerations, which might not have been uncovered otherwise, were revealed." (p. 18)

It is not surprising to find out that student feedback on materials is useful and necessary. Despite of all talent and knowledge that could be applied on materials development, the audience is the most important part of the process. If the audience is not satisfied, there is no good reason in developing materials. Kessler and Plankas' article is an example of the importance of student feedback and how it helps materials developers to increment and validate their work.

"As more instructors attempt to develop computer-based materials, it becomes increasingly important to assure the appropriateness and usability of these materials." (p. 22)

According to the authors the usability test was more helpful to improve and adapt the materials than the period they got suggestions from colleagues and other materials designers. In fact, instructors are not always sure about the extent of their students' abilities and preferences. With a usability test, learners have a chance to give their opinion about materials they will be using in the classroom. Besides, they may provide a good number of suggestions and ideas that can be useful for implementation of materials.

• Writing together

• The creative process

It's interesting to realize that different people develop materials in particular ways. How they write together, for example, may range from working in the same room to sending messages by e-mail without ever meet their partners. The creative process is another topic that called my attention. I think personality is a factor that definitely influences the process of creating materials. But, what really surprises me is the importance of writing in their lives.

• The four S's to look for when considering a job: satisfaction, security, salary, and status.

• Transparent writing

Reid's statement is a clear example of a materials writer's experience. It's an arduous path with several issues to take into account, lots of details to take care of, and extra work. As she pointed out, she was not only developing materials, but she was also working as an instructor, and dealing with her social life. Her testimony is helpful to make us think about the process of developing materials, but especially about the results, which are usually a source of satisfaction and personal realization.

• Relevant hypotheses about SLA

• SLA research as a complement to design of CALL activities

"The hypotheses outlined above are supported by theory and research on SLA tasks in experimental settings in which L2 learners interact with other learners or proficient target language users. They are not guaranteed to apply directly to design of CALL activities; but they may provide a valuable starting point to look for principles to apply to CALL." (p. 26)

It seems the application of SLA theory to design of CALL activities is new. As the author points out, more research is necessary in this area. The main difference between SLA research and CALL activities is that the former is based on social interactions, while the latter is based on a person in relation to a computer program. However, the author's position is interesting as she proposes the use of SLA research and theory as an initial attempt to structure CALL research.

Healey, D. (1999). Theory and research: Autonomy in language learning. In Joy Egbert and Elizabeth Hanson-Smith (Eds.), CALL environments: Research, practice, and critical issues (pp. 391-402). Alexandria, VA: TESOL. 

• self-direction

• autonomy

"In general, technology can be a valuable tool for autonomous learning, providing help in setting goals, making progress toward achieving them, and gathering information for self-assessment. As in other areas of education, technology is not an end in itself: it is only as useful as learners and teachers make it in working toward the goal of language acquisition." (p. 402)

Learning how to use technology to facilitate language learning, and provide students with opportunities to be autonomous in their learning has been an enjoyable experience. The set of activities we've been developing will probably work as an auxiliary tool in the language classroom, especially for learners who need extra assistance. However, as Healey points out, technology may be an important part of language learning, but it's not an end in itself. Regardless of the development of technology, I believe human resources will never become updated regarding to language learning.

• Computer-assisted classroom social interaction

• Computer-enhanced language classroom

Although the interest in computers has been growing, learners come first in the language classroom. Computers can make learning more attractive, challenging, motivating, but they should be used wisely. As the authors point out, the role of technology in the classroom should be adapted to students' needs and expectancies. The ideas about how to use computers in pair work or group word are very interesting.

• Digital reading versus reading from paper

• Strategies for scanning and skimming on screen

We have seen great changes in the educational environment, especially, in what refers to computers and technology. Consequently, educational issues, such as learning strategies are also changing to fit the new reality. In this transition, teachers have an important role as facilitators, and should be prepared to deal with problems that are likely to occur. For example, the difference between reading from paper and reading from screen, and the necessity of reading strategies to read from screen are the focus of this article.

• Constructivism

• User-centered approach

In the constructivist point of view, students are not just spectators or receivers but they play an active role in the process of learning. To assure students will achieve the best results, teachers and/or materials designers should develop materials that will enable students to reach their goals. Activities should be challenging as the process of getting a good result is more important than the result by itself.