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The Ottoman Empire and modern Turkey had the bad luck of beginning modernization in the worst days of European imperialism. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Europeans were taking the lands of others all over the world. Modern techniques of warfare allowed the British, French, Germans, Austrians, and Russians to create great empires. Few regions remained independent. The success of Turkey in remaining its own master is not often appreciated. Nevertheless, Turkey can be considered a success, because it survived.
The Backgrounds of Modernization
In the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire was known as the "Sick Man of Europe". Compared to Britain, France or Russia, the Ottomans were militarily weak. They were forced to fight losing wars in defense of their empire. While they tried to imitate Europe and reform their system, the Ottomans were hindered by attacks from powerful neighbors, especially Russia. Russian armies detached Rumania and Bulgaria from the Empire. Britain took Cyprus and Egypt, and Austria took Bosnia. Eventually Britain and France divided the Ottoman Arab lands between them. A related problem was the exodus of millions of Turks and other Muslims from the conquered lands into what remained the Ottoman Empire.
The Ottoman losses demanded enormous expenditures. Just as the Ottoman reform had begun to revivify their lands in Europe those lands were seized by others. Great sums were spent in modernizing regions, then more spent to defend them. The millions of refugees could not be settled quickly. The Ottomans were forced to borrow at ruinous rates both to modernize and to defend themselves, until even the interest could not be paid.
The Process of Modernization
The Tanzimat Reforms
The Tanzimat was a period of reform in the Ottoman Empire that lasted from 1839 to 1876. The ambitious project was launched to try and fight the slow decline of the empire that had seen its borders shrink and a growing weakness when compared to the European powers. These reforms were overseen by the European educated bureaucrats, and many of the reforms were attempts to graft successful European practices onto the empire. The reforms included universal conscription, educational reform, and the elimination of corruption.
Due to the vastness of the Ottoman Empire, success was mixed and differed from region to region. One of the more wide reaching effects was that both the Young Turks and the later leaders of Turkey were educated in the schools established during the Tanzimat, as were many of the early Arab Nationalists.
The Young Turks
The Young Turks were a Turkish nationalist reform party, officially known as the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP). They were a group of nationalist officers who demanded political reforms. Their leaders led a rebellion against Sultan Abdul Hamid II, who was forced to assemble a parliament in 1908, and to resign in 1909. After their rise to power, the Young Turks introduced programs that promoted the modernization of the Ottoman Empire and a new spirit of Turkish nationalism. Their handling of foreign affairs, however, resulted in the dissolution of the Ottoman state.
From the Ottoman Empire to the Republic of Turkey
The Ottoman Empire joined the central powers of Germany and Austria in World War I, fighting against the US, France and Britain. At the end of the war, the Treaty of S?res was signed by the sultan's representatives in the Paris Peace Conference. This treaty gave most of the land of Ottoman Empire to the allies, and independence to Armenia, Kurdistan and Hejaz.
A nationalist movement led by Mustafa Kemal, rejected the Treaty of Sevres and organised an army which repelled Greece from Turkey. A War of Independence was fought against the Greeks, and by September 18th, 1922 the country was liberated. The Treaty of Lausanne of 1923 recognised the new borders of Turkey. On October 29th, 1923 The Republic of Turkey was proclaimed.
Mustafa Kemal: Father of the Turks
In World War I, The Battle of Gallipoli was a major battle for the Ottomans. This battle also marked the raise of Mustafa Kemal. He would later become the leader of the movement that founded the republic, and also its first president.
Also widely known as 'Ataturk', Mustafa Kemal implemented many reforms in his presidency. These reforms greatly westernized and modernized the country. Some of the main reforms included the separation of religion and state, the replacement of the Islamic calendar with the Gregorian calendar, the introduction of the Latin alphabet, and the banning of fezes, hats which were considered as a symbol of feudalism. Clothes generally were changed to an approximation of European clothing, education was reformed along Western models, and rights were guaranteed for women, who began to vote and were elected to Parliament.
Conclusion: the Turkish Republic of Today
Over the past few decades, Turkey has recovered from the remnants of the Ottoman Empire. Although still a little unstable in foreign and economic affairs, Turkey is no longer the "Sick man of Europe". Turkey has flourished in its westernization and now is the member of the Council of Europe, NATO, OECD, and is a candidate country for accession into the European Union (EU).
The extraordinary fact of modern Turkish history is that the Turks managed to endure as a nation in their own state when so many others were falling under the imperial grasp of Europe. It is notable that the Turks could survive militarily against all odds. It is also remarkable that the Turks could modernize their society and economy along European lines when they were keeping their independence from European powers. Despite the efforts of his neighbors, the Sick Man recovered and lives on.
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References
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