Witch-hunts of Scotland:
How the trial of Doctor Fian Began a New Craze
Double, double toil and trouble;Fire burn and cauldron bubble.Cool it with a baboon's blood.Then the charm is firm and good.
O, well done! I commend your pains,And everyone shall share I'th'gains.And now about the cauldron singLike elves and fairies in a ring,Enchanting all that you put in.
By the pricking of my thumbs,Something wicked this way comes.
Macbeth, Act 4. sc. 1 William Shakespeare
Before 1591, witch persecutions were occurring in Scotland, but in limited numbers. It is after the trial of Doctor Fian that the witch hunts in Scotland, and later England, flourished. This trial had far reaching effects due to its association to King James VI, later King James I of England. It is this trial coupled with the kings religious beliefs that form his view and laws regarding witchcraft and the trials of alleged witches.
During her journey to Scotland, Princess Anne of Denmark, King James' future bride, encountered a violent storm that prevented her crossing. King James decided to personally retrieve his fiancée and set sail for Norway. When returning home, some said a stronger storm waylaid King James' ship and set it on a different course from the main fleet.(1) The couple, after great difficulties, finally reached Scotland. It was later purported that witches caused the bad weather in an attempt to kill the king.
Next in line for the English throne should Queen Elizabeth bear no children, King James was the center of plots and rumors of plots. One attempt at ending the plots led to the conspiracy against Doctor Fian. Newes from Scotland, a pamphlet published in England shortly after the persecution of Doctor Fian and other alleged witches, shows in graphic detail the brutality of this trial.(2) King James took a personal interest after Agnes Sampson confessed that she plotted against the king.(3)
The trial began with the arrest and persecution of a maidservant, Geillis Duncan, an employee of David Seaton. In Newes of Scotland, Geillis is suspected because she:
...vsed secretly to be absent and to lye foorth to her Maisters house euery other night: this Geillis Duncane took in hand to help all such as were troubled or greeued with any kinde of sicknes or infirmitie: and in short space did perfourme manye matter most miraculous, which thinges forasmuch as she began to doe before, made her Maister and other to be in great admiracion and wondered therat: by meanes wherof the saide Dauid Seaton had his maide in some great suspition, that she did not those things by naturall and lawfull wayes, but rather supposed it to be doone by some extrordinary and vnlawfull meanes."(4)While her curing people no doubt caused some mistrust, the fact that she would secretly go out at night most likely was the real cause of the suspicion. In the Puritan community in which Geillis lived, this had great significance.(5) After being tortured with Pilliwinckes, a "greeuous torture", Geillis confessed to being a witch and implicated Doctor Fian (alias Cunningham), Effie MacCalyan, Barbara Napier and Agnes Sampson.(6) These conspirators, after severe tortures, admitted to allegedly using spells and a dead cat thrown into the sea to try to kill the king on his trip to gain his bride. Doctor Fian had accused the Earl of Brothwell of being the leader of the coven. This took on even greater importance because Brothwell was the half-cousin of the king and next in line for the throne if James did not have any children. The trial therefore went beyond a local conspiracy and now touched on a larger political plot.(7) It is at this point, most likely, that the king decided to attend the trial in person, for now it had far reaching implications to his personage. In fact, Newes from Scotland said that he "tooke great delight to bee present at their examination."(8)
The pamphlet about the trial gave explicit detail regarding the rites performed in the coven. It described Agnes Tompson's confession as such:
Item, the said Agnes Tompson confessed that the Diuell being then in North Barrick Kerke attending their coming in the habit or likenes of a man, and seeing that they tarried ouer long, he at their coming enioyed them all to a pennance, which was, that they should kisse his Buttockes, in signe of duetye to him: which being put ouer the Pulpit barre, euerye one did as he had enioyned them: and hauing made his vngodly exhortations, wherein he did greatlye enveighe against the King of Scotland, he receiued their othes for their good and true seruice towards him, and departed... At which time the witches demaunded of the Diuel why he did beare such hatred to the King, who answered, by reason the King is the greatest enemy he hath in the worlde: all which their onfessions and depositions are still extant vpon record.(9)Not only did it expound on the activities of the witches, but also how to gain admissions of witchcraft. The methods of torture as described in the pamphlet were typical of that used on the continent. The inquisition still had control to a certain extent. In all probability, the way to obtain the "truth" caused the people to confess to anything, just so death would come sooner.If King James had held the act of treason above witchcraft at this stage of the trial, the declaration of Agnes Sampson most likely changed that. The stories up to this point in the trial probably seemed exaggerated as shown when "his Maiestie saide they were all extreame lyars."(10) However, when Agnes Sampson backed up her confession with some facts that the king could verify, it seemingly gave credibility to the earlier confessions. Apparently, Agnes Sampson took the king aside and revealed to him the exact conversation that occurred between his wife and himself on their wedding night. This solidified the king's belief in the witchcraft performed against him.
Fian, Sampson and MacCalyan received the death sentence. Napier was release and Brothwell was banished to Italy. It is interesting that Brothwell, the one who could possibly do the most damage to the king, did not receive a sentence of death. Presumably, there was insufficient evidence to convict him and therefore the king only forced him out of the country.(11) After realizing the political threat that witchcraft posed to the king, James began an intensive study of the subject. The king published the results of these studies in 1597 under the title Daemonologie. His book, Daemonologie, was an apology to
resolue the doubting harts of many; both that such assaultes of Sathan are most certainly practiced, & that the instrumentes thereof, merits most severly to be punished: against the damnable opinions of two principally in our age, wherof the one called SCOT an Englishman, is not ashamed in publike print to deny, that ther can be such a thing as Witch-craft: and so mainteines the old error of Sadducess in denying of spirits. The other called VVIERVS, a German Phisition, sets out a publick apologie for al these craftes-folkes, whereby, procuring for their impunitie, he plainely bewrayes himselfe to haue bene on of that profession.(12)King James, a stanch Calvinist, throughout his book used his religious knowledge to prove that witchcraft existed, and how the secular courts should punish a witch. He wanted to make sure that the populace took the threat of and belief in witchcraft as seriously as he did. This work became the "handbook" of the witch-hunts in Scotland, and later in England after James accents to the throne.
King James took the responsibility of eliminating evil and witchcraft from his realm very seriously. Upon gaining the English throne on Elizabeth I's death, James took severe actions against witchcraft. He banned Reginald Scot's book, The Discovery of Witchcraft, because Scot openly refuted the idea that there were such creatures as witches. This James would not tolerate. He also issued severe statutes against witches. Until 1603, witchcraft in England for the most part did not constitute death unless the witch murdered her victim through magic. This changed when James instituted his statute of 1604 that read:
If any person or persons shall use practice or exercise any Invocation or Conjuration of any evil or wicked spirit, or shall consult convenant with entertain employ feede or rewarde any evil or wicked spirit to or for any intent or purpose; or take any dead man or child out of his or her grave, or the skin bone or any other part of any dead person, to be employed or used in any manner of Witchcrafte, Sorcerie, Charm or Inchantment: or shall use practice or exercise any Witchcrafte, Inchantment or Sorcerie, whereby any person shall be killed, destroyed, wasted, consumed, pined or lamed in his or her body, or any part thereof...shall suffer the pains of deathe.(13)This law takes on new precedence. For example, it goes beyond murder as a reason for the death sentence, but also any use of dead bodies. Due to the medical practice of using cadavers to gain better knowledge, the clause regarding the dead seemingly was added. Designed to protect the people and their families from the growing trade found in selling exhumed cadavers, witchcraft and evils of the devil, this law actually help elevate the witch craze. The fact that it now set forth in detail what was included in witchcraft, people started a mass witch-hunt to "protect" themselves.(14)There is little doubt that King James truly believed in the powers of witches. His Calvinist faith as well as his personal experiences solidified his view. Yet, even he could not comprehend the direction his intense views would take his country. He also did not realize the vicious nature that the persecutions would take on. The false accusations brought to the courts of King James gave him reason to doubt his earlier convictions. Ronald Holmes suggests in his book Witchcraft in British History, that King James later regretted his role in the slaughter of people. As Ronald Holmes states
It is clear that James's background of Calvinism and superstition caused him to become convinced of the existence of witches and devils, and that this led him to issue the statute of 1604 in all sincerity. The subsequent use of his beliefs to foster the purposes of charlatans, blackmailers, political conspirators and petty rogues brought home to him the awful truth that he had given licence to unreasoned slaughter.(15)The king experienced a change of heart due to the deception of others. He attempted to rectify the mistakes caused by his statute. As Holmes states "to his credit...he had the perception and intelligence to see the state of affairs, and the courage and sincerity to do all in his power to improve the situation."(16) Unfortunately, after the common people had accepted King James views they were not willing to give them up. It was not until the end of the seventeenth century, long after King James I had died, that the witch-hunts, for the most part, ended.
During the late fifteenth and early sixteenth, the evidence shows how brutal and violent the witch-hunts had become in Scotland and England during King James reign. The trial of Doctor Fian put into motion a slaughtering wheel against "witches" that did not stop until long after the people originally involve were dead. King James, through his personal writings and public laws, accepted and advanced the persecutions against witches, but even he learned to regret his earlier position.
Notes:
1. Arkon Daraul, Witches and Sorcerers (London: Frederick Muller Limited, 1962). 211 2. G. B. Harrison ed., "Newes from Scotland," Elizabethan and Jacobean Quartos (New York: Barnes and Noble, Inc., 1966), 1-29 3. Daraul, Witches and Sorcerers, 211 4. Harrison ed., "Newes from Scotland," 8-9 5. Ronald Holmes, Witchcraft in British History (London: Frederick Muller Ltd., 1974), 108 6. Harrison ed., "Newes from Scotland," 9-12 7. Holmes, Witchcraft in British History, 108 8. Harrison ed., "Newes from Scotland," 14 9. Ibid., 14-15 10. Ibid., 15 11. Holmes, Witchcraft in British History, 108-109 12. G. B. Harrison ed., "Daemonologie," Elizabethan and Jacobean Quartos (New York: Barnes and Noble, Inc., 1966), xi-xii 13. Holmes, Witchcraft in British History, 110 14. Ibid., 112 15. Ibid., 117 16. Ibid.
Bibliography
Daraul, Arkon, Witches and Sorcerers. London: Frederick Muller Limited, 1962
Harrison, G. B. ed., Elizabethan and Jacobean Quartos. New York: Barnes and Noble, Inc., 1966
Holmes, Ronald, Witchcraft in British History. London: Frederick Muller Ltd., 1974
Howland, Arthur, Materials Toward A History of Witchcraft, Vol. III. New York: Thomas Yoseloff, 1957
Kors, Alan C. and Edwards Peters ed., Witchcraft in Europe 1100-1700: A Documentary History. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1972
Larner, Christina, Enemies of God: The Witch-hunt in Scotland. Baltimore, Maryland: The John Hopkins University Press, 1981
Larner, Christina, "Witch Beliefs and Witch-hunting in England and Scotland", History Today 31 (1981): 32-36
Notestein, Wallace, A History of Witchcraft in England: From 1558 to 1718. Washington: The American Historical Association, 1911
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