International Courts
Since the creation of the United Nations in 1945 and the European Economic Community in 1958, four major international courts have been set up

  • International Court of Justice
        Often known as the World Court; composed of 15 judges, all of different nationalities and all elected by the UN General Assembly and the Security Council; sits in s'Gravenhage (The Hague) in Holland; deals with cases involving disputes between states and the interpretation of international treaties.

  • European Court of Justice
        Composed of ten judges, all of different nationalities and appointed by the ten member governments of the EEC; sits in Luxembourg; interprets EEC law at the request of national courts and deals with cases brought by states or individuals against EEC institutions or by EEC institutions against member states, but cannot impose fines or prison sentences to enforce its decisions.

  • European Court of Civil Rights
        Composed of 21 judges - one for each of the 21 nations in the Council of Europe - appointed by the council's Parliamentary Assembly; sits in Strasbourg, France; hears cases involving alleged breaches of the 1950 European Convention for the protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedom.

  • Inter-American Court of Human Rights
        Composed of seven judges elected by the General Assembly of the Organisation of American States; sits in San Jose, Costa Rica; hears cases involving the interpretation of the 1969 American Convention on Human Rights.
How Laws are Made
  • United States of America:
        The US Congress - the law making arm of the federal government - consists of two Houses; the House of Representatives and the Senate. Any Congressman in either House, or the President, may initiate new legislation.
        The Bill is first introduced in the House of Representatives, then referred to one of the standing committees, which organises hearings on it and may approve, amend or shelve the draft. If the committee passes the Bill, it is condidered by the House of Representatives as a whole. If passed again, it goes to the Senate for a similar sequence of committee hearings and general debate.
        In cases of disagreement, the House of Representatives and the Senate confer together. Once passed by the Senate as a whole, the Bill has to be examined by two more standing committees - the Committee on House Administration and the Senate Committee on Rules and Administration - nd is then signed by the Speaker of the House and by the President of the Senate. Finally it must be signed by the President, who has the right to veto it. If the President does veto the Bill it can still become law - but only if it is passed by a two-thirds majority in both Houses of Congress.

  • Britain
        New legislation in Britain usually starts in the House of Commons and then goes on to the Houes of Lords. In each House, the Bill is considered in three stages, called readings. The first reading is purely formal to introduce the Bill. The second reading is usually the occaision for debate. After the second reading, the Bill is examined in detail by a committee.
        The Bill is then brought back to the House for the report stage when it can be amended. Finally, it has its third reading and, if passed, goes to the other House. Amendments made to a Bill by the House of Lords have to be considered by the Commons. If the House of Commons does not agree, the Bill is altered and sent back to the Lords. In the event of persistent disagreement between the two Houses, the will of the Commons prevails.
        Finally the Bill goes to the reigning monarch for the Royal Assent. Nowadays the Royal Assent is merely a formality. In theory the Queen could still refuse her consent. But the last monarch to use this power was Queen Anne, who vetoed the unpopular Scottish Malitia Bill in 1707.

  • Russia:
        New legislation is initiated by the Presidium of the Communist Party's Central Committee. It is then considered by either the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet or the presidium of the Council of Ministers. Once approved by either body, the legislation has the force of law, though it may also be formally approved by the Supreme Soviet.
    ( The information here is from the mid-eighties and has most likely changed since the break-up of the Soviet Union. Axiompc ).

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