Classicism, derived from Latin classicus, refers to highest ranked Roman citizens; more loosely, of first rank. In Western tradition Classical means ancient Greece and Rome, especially its literature, art, architecture and ideals; emphasizing balance (symmetry), clarity (simplicity), moderation (restraint, Aristotle's "mean") In literature and the arts Classical often describes work in set, prescribed forms (classical ballet, music) adhering to traditional standards universally, enduringly valid. In Classical Greek tradition, artists endeavored to create perfect balance between motion, emotion; individual, ideal; specific, general. Suffering is expressed within contexts of noble restraint. Classic Greek art: serenity and balance, humanity and lyric harmony, flexibility and relaxation. Balance and order are key. Ideal is full integration, balance between human nature and culture. Classic nonWestern art forms include Japan's classic Noh drama, Chinese opera, and Bunraku theater. They rely on codified styles of presentation and standard visual references in set, costume and makeup.
ROMANTICISM
Romanticism emphasizes passion rather than reason, imagination and inspiration rather than logic. It favors full expression of emotions and free, spontaneous action rather than restraint and order. Romanticism contrasts with classicism.
FORCES LEADING TO ROMANTICISM
- Growing distrust of reason as the principal tool for achieving man's highest goals.
- Doubting the rightness of existing social and political order increased as rising middle classes prompted reconsideration of distinctions making most men subservient to an aristocratic minority.
- Defining truth in terms of "norms" was replaced by the conviction that truth can only be discovered in infinite varieties of creation. To know ultimate truth one must know as much of creation as possible.
- Since all creation has a common origin a careful, thorough study of any part may lead to a glimpse of the whole. Trees, grass, rivers and mountains reflect something about man, as man reflects something about them.
- Since the ultimate source of creation is God, truth is infinite and beyond total comprehension or adequate expression. Therefore it's impossible ever to grasp all of reality, although one may and should continually seek to do so.
- The person most capable of grasping and expressing truth is the genius. Rules constrain the true genius.
- Artists need forms adequate to expression of great truths. New forms were needed allowing maximum freedom to express infinite creation.
REALISM
Realism portrays life as it is. Critic Eric Bently defined it as the candid presentation of the natural world. Unlike naturalism, realism attempts to be selective. Realism was a revolt against classicism and romanticism, forms realists saw as unnatural. Realism developed out of the development of science. Philosopher Auguste Comte classified sciences according to their relative simplicity, with sociology at the apex as the most complex and important science. He believed art must depict truthfully the real physical world; truth is attained only through direct observation; only contemporary life and manners is directly observeable; observers must be as impersonal as scientists. Realist theater created a total stage picture attentive to "details" of sound, set, costume, etc, bringing everyday activity onstage. Ensemble acting was the order of the day as opposed to the old "star" system. For the dramatist, realism worked from the same scientific idea. Dramatist Eugene Scribe advocated the well-made play concept which emphasized:
Ibsen modified the well-made play theory to include motivated expositions and made sure dialogue, costume, etc were selected for their ability to reveal character and move the story along. Each role is concieved as a personality whose behavior is attributable to hereditary or environmental causes. Internal psychological motivations are given even greater emphasis than external visual details.
NATURALISM
Naturalism is an extension of realism, articulated most strongly by Emile Zola in the late 19th century. Zola believed drama should restrict itself to illustrating the inevitable laws of heredity and environment or to recording case studies. He wanted dramatists to present truth objectively like scientists, thus observe, record, and experiment. Do not gloss over life, he said. Unlike realism, naturalism made no attempt to be selective and in performance wanted to photograph life, meaning all aspects of the performance sought to capture a true picture of life. Of course, this wasn't a successful movement.
EXPRESSIONISM
Expressionism emerged in Germany around 1910 and sought to counter materialism and industrialism. Expressionism charged that the industrial age had turned people into machines with conditioned responses and souls shriveled by materialistic values. Expressionists wanted to reshape the world to make it conform to what is best in the human spirit and thereby to acheive the "regeneration of man." Most expressionistic drama focuses on how the human spirit has been distorted by false values. It usually shows the protagonist searching for truth, fulfillment or a means to change the world.
The external world of theater production may also be distorted to reflect the mental state of the character. The walls of buildings or rooms may lean in thereateningly, color may reflect emotion (the protagonist's jealousy may make the sky green, not blue), movement and speech may be robotlike, or several persons or objects may be identical in appearance, there my be emphasis on shadow and angles. The world may be a nightmarish version of human experience or the production may focus on the inner person, thus reflecting his mental state in order to touch the audience's emotions. Expressionism is often associated with pessimism and disillusionment since it reached its heights in Germany immediately after World War I.
POSTMODERNISM
Postmodernism reflects contemporary thinking in art as artists chose to ignore or violate rules and regulations of disciplines. As the 1960s produced a revolution in cultural thinking, artists became resolute in creating new forms and styles which often integrated art disciplines and various materials. Artists rebelled against absolutism and sought to express individuality which often shocked as well as inspired audiences.