A.Grigorenco

 WE ALONE IN THE UNIVERSE

(Site "Through thorns to stars". Anatol Grigorenco)
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 The FOREWORD

The sky above us
And moral law  Inside us. 
                                             I.Каnt

Among many problems, which excite mankind, there is one, representing the special interest. Probably, it is so much, how many there is a person, it was excited with a problem - whether one we in the universe. The judgements in this occasion existed most different. And sometimes struggle of these judgements became so acute, that cost life by the one who did not agree with the conventional judgement. An example to that can be destiny Djordano Bruno. 
           And even now, when the science has achieved in study of secrets of the universe of improbable heights, final answer to this problem  on former   is not present. Really, and till now problems of existence  of extraterrestrial civilizations excite not only practically everything, but also in scientific circles are considered actual. The work conducts by a set of scientific collectives and separate scientists, including within the framework of the program CETI ( Communication with Extraterrestrial Intelligence ). Though many scientists, for example academician Шкловский И.С., suppose, that the human civilization most likely is unique.
            It is quite natural, that in human culture the problem of extraterrestrial  reasonable life is reflected rather widely. There is no number of a different kind to the fancy novels, movies and other works of art devoted to this problem. 
            In the book, which dear reader keeps in hands, some reasons are stated, permitting to suppose that we in the universe is alone. That it to show, it was necessary to the author to study a lot of the scientific literature. Nevertheless, supposing, that the book can be interesting to a broad circle of the readers, the material is stated simply enough. Some accounts are resulted, but they, as a rule, do not leave for frameworks of a rate of high school. Nevertheless, in necessary cases the explanations are resulted. Many judgements, positions, datas are taken from published works. Taking into account, that not all are familiar with problems, which in the book will be considered, is brief and as it is possible more popularly they are stated. Therefore, if the judgements, which I here state, to someone will be shown disputable, that, at least, the favourable reader can obtain here a lot of interesting information.
            Nobody will be obliged all that here is said to accept on a faith. Let's argue, we shall think together. You see this such pleasant occupation to distract from the ordinary, from problems ours daily life and to think to dream, on to reason about stars, about other worlds, about the brothers on intellect … Therefore distract,  my dear brothers on reason, from yours cares and be dipped together with me in nirvanna intellectual pleasures!

THE CHAPTER 1. « A EXTRATERRESTRIAL CIVILIZATION »,  THAT THIS SUCH

The God also has told:
shall create person on  to image to ours
on a similarity to ours.   

Before to proceed to consideration of a problem about a possibility of existence in the universe « the brothers on reason », we shall try to understand, and what they can by themselves represent. Existed different opinions on this problem. For example, sometimes speak about such forms of life, as crystalline, plasma and other. But main is considered that they have intelligence. Therefore first of all we shall stay on concept intelligence. Speak, that at the man the intelligence is (though sometimes and there are on this account some doubts), and at an animal it is not present. Why? Probably, first of all any alive entities do not speak. There is no at them a speech. They do not know words. 
       And that such word. The word is a sign, this concept. When we speak to other person "wheel", he imagines something round with axle. When we think about something, as though we talk to ourselves. The animals so can not. They not only can not speak, they can not and to think. 
     And whence this our ability has undertaken. Extremely that the man is an  public creature. Ancient our ancestor, a primate lived in herd. Physically more poorly many animals, especially of predators, he should to survive. And unique path of a survival was a path of a unification in herd. A  few creatures should act as one creature. And it could be only under condition of enough effective dialogue - exchange by signs, which, with  magnification of their number and the varieties, became concepts. Thus, the reason is evolutionary , during a natural selection produced at higher primates ability of an operation by concepts
       In the evolutionary plan, reason the same means of the adaptation to conditions of the given ecological niche, as well as trunk at the elephant. But possibility to operate with concepts for want of talk with itself not uncovering a mouth, that is to think, allows the man to simulate process of the operations. Because  of analysis of models to select most effective. Due to this, and also availability at the man of hands (which, by the way, also have played the extremely important role during shaping reason), the man has had an opportunity to create instruments for a work.
       Thus, the number of conditions is necessary for origin of reason. At least creature claiming for acquiring  of intelligence, should form as a product of evolution in struggle for a survival, should have some biological premises (advanced brain, relative freedom of the upper extremities, on which there are palms with fingers) and  the form of life in a herd.
      The men is a higher product of biological evolution. He could not will appear, that the life as such has appeared. And whether can appear what or other life except for biological? Let's consider now, that there is a life.
       As is known, all that we see round itself, there is an eternally moving substance. During this movement the elements of a substance collide and scatter. If the energy of joined elements is less, than sum energies of elements before association, such association becomes stable.
      So from elementary partiсles there are atoms, from atoms of a molecule. From atoms and molecules - star, planet, the crystals etc. Sometimes can in particular conditions arise very large molecules. But the more largly molecules  is less stable, therefore fast and breaks up.
     Such situation however is possible, when the molecule can be as the template, on which the atoms are going and the same molecule is formed. In that case, quantity of such molecules can increase up to such magnitude, that the origin of other similar molecules with some properties approximating process to origin of life, becomes quite probablis.
     Thus, life it first of all self-reproduction of complicated molecules, or replycation. It is possible to cite more developed definition of life, for example, as the academician Троицкий В.С. has offered: The life is highly organized, selfreproductional state of substance, supported by exchange with an external environment of substance, energy and informations coded by a state of molecules.
      What main conditions should be, that the process replycation was possible. At first, the molecule should be linear, such that was to free access of other atoms or molecules to any part of the given molecule. To this to the greatest degree there meet polymeric molecules. As is known from chemistry, from all atoms, which can form a polymeric circuit, are known only carbon and to a lesser degree - silicon. In connection with a number of circumstances, the silicon can not be a basis of polymeric molecules, originating by a natural way and providing a possibility replycation. Secondly, there should be a environment, in which atoms and the molecules moved and actively interact. And this environment can be only water. Besides should be certain temperature and pressure. All substances necessary for polymerisation and replycation  of molecules should be dissolved of water.
     As we see, condition pleased limited. For want of it it is possible to understand, that (at least in our universe) the origin of process replycation is impossible in the crystalline form of substance, especially, in plasma, and it is possible only as polymeric of carbon-hydrogen  molecules. That is the life can be only organic
      Thus, the intelligence is a product of evolutionary development of organic life. An creature claiming for acquire of intelligence, can be only higher primate. Therefore carrier of intelligence can be only  an antropomorfical creature. Such approach in a scientific medium conventionals.
      Such judgements are stated, however, that ancestors of the people are not the ancient primates. And who? Let's not stay on that judgement, that the man was created by the God from clay seven thousands of years back. The one who rigidly adheres to this hypothesis, will read hardly this book. As to a hypothesis panspermia, that is that judgement, that the ancestors of the man were brought from space (here different judgements - whether man already in a modern kind, whether life on what that a stage), we here can set the following problem: and there, in space, how it has appeared? If in itself, there there should be conditions by something better, than on the Earth, and than it is not known. If and there life or man were brought, again whence, and we run into bad infinity.
     There are judgements, that we ancestors of the space newcomers. Well, at first, here we too hit in bad infinity. And secondly, elementary anatomic, physiological, citological and the other analysis of our body does not speak, but crying, that we a the flesh from flesh and blood from blood a part of our alive nature.
      There are some, which very much does not like to realize, that we and anthropoids have a common ancestor. Well, that is possible to tell in this occasion. It is not pleasant to you, what they are covered with a wool? And ask the monkeys, whether we like them without a wool. Probably, him to see us without a wool same, that to us to see the man without a skin.
       And generally, than we are purely better. You see more , the greedy, wicked, severe creature on the Earth is not present. You see,  was said - «the man  walks by the Earth, and the desert behind him».
       There is no alive creature on the Earth, which with such persistence, hatred and pleasure would exterminate in an infinite turn of wars of a mass to itself similar. And in short periods of the peace was not aimed for want of first convenient case to make for nearest man some nasty trick. So, that we shall not offend our smaller brothers  by the not reasonable contempt.
       Many have doubts in an origin of the man from a higher primate that they outwardly (it is named fenotipe) very differ from the man. On all visibility, it happens what not simply to realize  of that huge space of time, which divides us, also that flexibility, which provides a variability of appearance of alive creatures during evolution. Really, look on the domestic animals. All of them are introduced by the man, but on the appearance so differ from the wild ancestors, that of steel as though by other kinds. For example, room dog practically nothing has common with the wolf. And modern horse - with the horse of Пржевальский.
      The history of the man, on archaeological and paleontological  datas, envelops period in hundreds thousands of years. And  Finded by L.Liki  the skull  of zidjantrop and stone instruments   near him has extended a human history, having finished it almost till 2 000 000 years.
        Thus, as a conclusion under this chapter, we shall be defined, that if we search   for a certain extraterrestrial civilization, we search  for an antropomorfical creatures, or simply speaking - man, that achieved such degree of a intelligence, that he creates a civilization.
         And, we understand a civilization as the certain stage of organization of reasonable life in essence new alive organism consisting of a  persons set, forming the social form  of a substance movements. Social intelligence. Or, on definition of В.С.Троицкий, The civilization is a generality of intelligence creatures using  exchange of an information, energy and mass for development of operations and means supporting the life and progressive development.
       Certainly, we can not search for these   extraterrestrial civilization, how is searching mushrooms in a wood. But we can, at least to think, whether  can exist  of a extraterrestrial civilization generally. More exactly, whether there outside of the Earth be such conditions, that the civilization could appear.

 The CHAPTER 2. HOW  WE WILL  DETERMINE   POSSIBILITY  
                      EXISTENCES  of EXTRATERRESTRIAL CIVILIZATIONS

The person - measure of all things.

As we already spoke, for the existence of  a civilization are necessary the appropriate conditions . Somewhere these conditions can be, and where that is not present. Generally speaking, this business of case. And the contingencies have some probability. The problems of probability are the whole science. But for our purposes all this science to study there is no special necessity. Nevertheless, for those who is not familiar with this science at all,  we shall consider some problems.
        So, take the coin. Let's throw it and we shall look, has dropped out heads or tails. Can be heads, and can and tails. We can not to foresee it.  The events are equiprobable. As speak, fifty on fifty. The chances are equal. In theory probabilities speak, that in this case probability of drop - out, for example, heads, is equal  1/2.
       Well and if we have decided to purchase the lottery ticket, what probability that we can win, say, automobile. We know, for example, that of the lottery ticket one million is issued. And twenty automobiles  are played. Let's to divide twenty on one million and we shall receive the probability of that that we shall win the automobile, if we shall purchase one lottery ticket. That is, the probability of such event is equal 20/1 000 000, or 2/ 100 000. That these figures would be more compact, them note so: 2 ґ 10 ^-5 . Here (-) the denominator signifies -. And (5) - how many time is necessary to multiply 10 on itself to receive 100 000. If   1000, that is equal 10 ³ , multiply on 100, that is equal 10 ² , that will be received 100 000, or 10 ⁵ . That is, if the numbers as degrees from 10 are multiplied, the their degrees parameters  are summarized. Or: 10 ³ ґ10 ² =10 ⁵.
        If we shall purchase 50 lottery ticket, the probability of our prize will increase and will be equal: 50ґ 2 ґ 10 ^-5 = 5 ґ 2 ґ 10 ¹ ґ 10 ^-5 = 10 ¹ ґ 10 ¹ ґ 10 ^-5   = 10 ^-3 . That is one chance from a thousand. The probability of our prize has increased in fifty time. If one automobile was played, and we would buy up all lottery ticket, the automobile (if it certainly honour lottery) would be, certainly ours. That is, the probability of our prize would become equal to unit.
      Now we allow, that the lottery is played in two stages. In total issue was one million tickets, from which thousand of the ticket entitle to participate in the second round, where  20 automobiles are played. Let's allow: B₁ - probability of a win of the ticket giving the right of participation in the second round, B₂ - probability of a winning of the automobile in the second round.
      To receive common probability, it is necessary to summarize significances of probabilities B₁ and B₂ . For it probability B₁and B₂ are multiplied (as it not strange sounds « to summarize, it is necessary to multiply »). That is, B = B₁ ґ B₂ . Is valid, B₁ = 10 ³ / 10 ⁶ = 10 ^-3 . B₂ = 20/10 ³ = 2ґ 10 ^-2 . B = B₁ ґ B₂ = 10 ^-3 ґ 2 ґ 10 ^-2 = 2 ґ 10 ^-5 . That is, same probability, that if we play of a lottery in one round.
    So, approximately, we also shall determine probability of origin of a civilization, combining probabilities of origin of separate conditions, without which can not arise civilization  . 
     Perhaps, a basic formula for all problem of extraterrestrial civilizations is the simple ratio, received title «the  formulas of Drake»
                                                     

Where  N - Number  of civilizations existing in the universe together with us, n full number of stars in the universe,  P ₁ - probability that the star has a planetary system,  P ₂ - probability of origin of life on a planet,  P ₃     - probability that this life during evolution becomes reasonable, P₄   - probability that the reasonable life can create a civilization,  t ₁   - average duration of existence of a civilization,  T   - age of the universe.

The formula is simple. In essence, it is an  formula of summarizing of probabilities   and we know, how  to do it. It is complicated to determine magnitudes, which in this formula. Especially  listed probabilities. In accordance with development of science is observed clearly expressed  downward tendency of probabilities in the formula of Drake. Precisely it is impossible to determine them, certainly. It is very good, if we can determine them even approximately. To within the order, that is, ten times it is more or less. But even for this purpose we must  work very well. And for this we shall be acquainted, even slightly, with the universe, galaxies, stars, planets, Earth and life on it. So,  we shall gather bravery, patiences and shall go further.  

 THE CHAPTER 3. THIS FURIOUS UNIVERSE

 Above us abyss, of stars is full,
There is not of stars number,
There is  not  bottom  of abyss.
     М.В.Ломоносов

 Who (in clear, without Moon night, and  somewhere  far from large cities) did not test  of delight, peering in bottomless abyss of the Universe, that studded by billions of stars. It seems, that the picture this is eternal and is constant. But actually universe is living mysterious, but stormy, and sometimes dramatic life.

The discoveries of the last decades allow us more - less completely to present a picture of universe, which we here briefly shall describe.

So, we live on a planet the Earth. It is one from the planets  , that are moving round the Sun. The Sun - one from the stars, which is included into number of stars component of a local system that forming a galaxy Milky way. It is a lot of such (and not only such) galaxies. One from nearest to us - galaxy Туманность Андромеды.  It in Andromeda constellation . The galaxies can  be elliptic, spiral and incorrect. Our galaxy and galaxy Туманность Андромеды concern to spiral galaxies (Foto1). Looking on Туманность Андромеды, it is possible to present, that it is our galaxy. Then we are approximately there, where is the circle.  Some tens nearest galaxies make a local system. Then huge spaciousnesses of a hollow. Other systems of galaxies are detected further. They are placed as though a honeycombs. On a Photo 2 the snapshot, literally studded by galaxies is shown. And so up to a limit of possibilities of our astronomical tools.

As speakings, the space, so also universe, are infinite. And the time has neither beginning, nor finish. Difficultly here to object. Probably, that's right. In this case and the number of civilizations is indefinite. And here as though and to speak there is nothing. Nevertheless, there are basis to look for some limits in space and time, which will allow to speak at least about our universe. And such limits are. But to understand an essence of these limits, we must to be acquainted with concept of a red displacement. And for this purpose at first we shall recollect, that such the spectral analysis and the  effect of Dopler.

The spectral analysis. There is no such person, which would not see a rainbow. And from school  physics we know,  that, if  to pass light through a glass prism, too it is possible to see a rainbow (Fig. 1). As we know, that first such experience were performed by a Newton.  And  we, certainly, know, that it because light are electromagnetic waves.
    In principle, such electromagnetic  waves, as well as radiowave, due to which we look the TV set and we listen to a wireless, but much with the greater frequency, or with a much smaller wavelength.

Fig. 1

When any body hardly is heated up, it too emits light, that is electromagnetic waves of a light range. We know, that the body consist of atoms and molecules. And the atom consists of a nucleus and rotated (if simply to tell) round it of electrons. So, for want of heating the atoms acquire a kinetic energy, some electrons a moving faster and pass to other orbits, where the large energy is required. If to stop heat, the body cools down. The electrons emit excessive energy as a small part of an electromagnetic wave, called a quantum, and return to old orbit. And if heated the body radiates energy. Therefore, to support a luminescence, for example electrobulbs, through  it is necessary constantly to pass a current.   Rainbow, about which we spoke, in a more general sense, scientists name as a spectrum. And the cause of it is that that the waves with different frequency are differently deviate from the straight direction. Probably we remember, that this phenomenon is named as a dispersion.
      When the electron passes from orbit to orbit, it either swallows, or emits quantum of the strictly certain wavelength. This wavelength depends on what orbit takes the electron and generally from that, how many  have electrons atom, or what it is element in the Mendeleev  table. 
      For example, the oxygen of length of waves will have one, and the carbon absolutely other. When we look at a rainbow, we see it as continuous transition colours from one  to other. It because the process of radiations and reradiations very complicated and it is difficult for as to select separate  component of a spectrum. Such spectrum is named continuous. But if to accept some measures, it is possible to detect in a spectrum separate lines. Lines are named as spectral lines. The spectral lines of each chemical element are completely individual. Therefore, having looked on  a spectrum obtained from a star with the help of of a telescope, is possible  to precisely tell, what chemical elements there is, and on their brightness to evaluate their relative amount.  
       The spectral methods become one from main, both in an astronomy, and in an astrophysics. Widely they are applied and in various terrestrial technologies.
       Dopler effect.  We studied at school this effect, nevertheless I shall remind for those, who forget it. Each, probably, remembers, that when he was going by train, and ahead there is other train, engine-driver of which is signaling, we hear  a high  sound tone, and when the locomotive  will pass, the tone becomes lower. It because when a source of a sound (or other oscillations, including electromagnetic) goes towards to the observer, the frequency of accepted oscillations becomes more, and when the source goes from the observer - less.
       In a light range of electromagnetic oscillations it is exhibited in a displacement of spectral lines in a spectrum obtained from object.
       Red displacement. In 1912 V.Slafer (USA)  begins to receive spectra of deleted galaxies. On stretch of several years the spectra 41 objects were obtained. Has appeared, that in 36 cases of a line in spectra are displaced to the red side. It was  most natural to explain this shift by effect Dopler. In case the lines of a spectrum displace to the red side, the frequency of obtained spectral lines are decreasing, and  galaxies  are moving from us. This effect have named as a red displacement.
       In an end of 1923 Habbl has evaluated a distance up to Туманность Андромеда, and soon and up to other galaxies. After that he has made attempt to find dependence between a velocity of deleting of a galaxy and distance from it. In 1929, on a datas about 36 galaxies,  it was possible for Habbl to install, that velocities of galaxies (or the red displacements in spectra, appropriate to them) are increasing directly proportional to distance up to them. After a number of clarifications made by other scientists, the fact  of galaxies scattering became conventional. It speaks that our Universe extends.
       If the galaxies are scattering, it mean, that earlier they were closer to each other. And at one time, all universe generally was compressed if not in a point, but in that something very small. And then grandiose explosion has followed, or, as it is accepted among the scientist, - Large explosion. Knowing a scattering velocity  of galaxies, it is possible to calculate and time, which has passed from time of Large explosion.
       The problem of calculation of this time not so also is simple. There mass of the problems. Who are wishing, can be acquainted with them in the literature. For example, that is listed in an bottom of the book. Here we shall tell, that nobody know exactly, but in general a scientists converge on a times from 13 up to 20 billions of years. And so, there is one from major basic data for a decision of problem of determination of possible number  Civilizations.
      Knowing about age of our universe, we can determine its approximate sizes. Besides there are also other possibilities to limit approximately sizes of the universe.
      At first, than further from us a galaxyes, they run faster  from us ,is more shifted their spectrum to red side, and in the final account the galaxy becomes invisible in the field of light, and even of an infra-red radiation.
      Secondly, more interesting possibility was found to evaluate scale of our universe.
     The space monsters. After the second world war, the already invented radars in an astronomy  were used as a radiotelescopes too. With their help the various radiosources were open, five  sources from  which at first have named as "radiostars". However, soon this term was recognized not so successful, and these sources of radio emission were called as kvasi-star-shaped radiosources, or, in abbreviated form, kvasars.
       Investigating a spectrum kvasars, the astronomers have clarified, that kvasars generally farthest from known space objects. Now it is known about 1500 kvasars. Farthest from them is deleted from us approximately on 15 billions of light years. (I shall remind, that a light year, this distance, which passes light for one year. The speed of light is approximately equal of 300 000 kilometers per one second.) Simultaneously it and fastest. It escapes from us with a velocity close to speed of light. Therefore we can accept, that the sizes of our universe is limited by a radius in 15 billions of light years, or 142 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 kilometers.
        If we have started talking about kvasars, a little bit I shall tell about them more in detail. Even the ordinary kvasars radiates light in tens and hundreds time more , than largest galaxies consisting of hundreds of billions of stars. Is characteristic, that kvasars radiate in all an electromagnetic range from x-ray waves up to radiowaves. Even average kvasar is brighter than 300 billions of stars. Unexpectedly has appeared, that the brightness kvasars varies with very small periods - week, days and even minutes. As in the world there is nothing faster than light, it signifies, that the sizes kvasars are very small. You see of time all kvasar changes the brightness, it signifies uniform process, which on kvasar can not be distributed with a velocity of greater speed of light. For example, kvasar with period of a modification of brightness per 200 seconds should have a diameter no more radius of Earth orbit and for want of it radiate of light more than 300 billions of stars.
     The uniform judgement about a nature kvasars is not present. However, they are from us on such distance, that light reaches us during up to 15 billions of light years. So we see processes, which at us 15 billions of years back (that is after Large explosion) happened.
      Now we can tell, that a radius of our universe approximately 15 billions of light years.  Proceeding from this age of universe approximately is 15 billions of years. So is written in the literature. But for me  there is one  doubt. Really, kvasar to transmit to us a ray of light, already should be there, where we its is seeing. Therefore, if it moved with speed of light, from a point of Large explosion should fly during the same 15 billions of years. Therefore age installed should be, at least it is twice more, That is - 30 billions of years.
      It is necessary to mark, that measurements of properties of objects were performed on an edge of the universe, is made on limits of a possibility of astronomical tools.  And the disputes between the scientists are far from completion. Therefore exactitude of the indicated figures is rather relative. In this connection, for further our calculations we use figures, which are mentioned in majority of the publications, in view of my note in the previous paragraph. Namely: a radius of the universe - 10 billions of light years, age - 20 billions of years.
      What is further behind these limits, we do not know. Probably we find out never. Therefore for us all the same, that there is some things further or not. Also it is possible to consider, that there is nothing. Therefore our universe also is  universe generally.
       Now, when we are determined with sizes and age of our universe, briefly we shall look what fills its. In general it is almost empty. In incredibly huge blank space occasionally are placed of a congestion of galaxies (Photo 2) .Today the largest telescopes allow to register galaxies on all universe, and is calculated, that in it about two hundred millions (some suppose, that up to 1.5 billions) galaxies, each of which consists of billions of stars. The groups of a congestion and supercongestion of galaxies are located mainly in rather slim layers or line-ups. The layers and line-up are intersected, incorporate one another and are formating enormous cells of the incorrect forms, inside which galaxies practically is absent. 
       We already spoke, that the galaxies is have elliptic, spiral and incorrect form. There is a judgement, that elliptic it is young galaxies, spiral is middle-aged galaxies, and incorrect form  is old galaxies. There are also other judgements.
       There is an possibilities  to reason, but before this we shall look up on concept of a black hole.                    
        Black holes. The concept « black holes » in many respects bases on a Enshtein relativity theory. But the theory this not so also is simple, therefore we shall try to explain this concept as more simply.
      First of all, we know, that such a gravitation. At last we know, that if to throw a glass, it will fall on ground. The Earth attracts it. Generally all bodies having a mass, are attracted to each other. Light too has a mass. Столетов has defined, that light is pressing on the body. Really, light is an electromagnetic wave, which has energy. And energy, according to the Enshtein equation    - Е = m×c² , has a mass m . Therefore light also is attracted by a mass. For example, if the ray of light is moving near a planet or star, it  deviates to its side. And, than the star more   attracts of ray of light , the more it deviates.
      There can be such force of gravitational attraction, that light not only will fall on a star, but even quantum of a light radiation can not leave from it. And not only light, but also generally nothing can leave a body with such high-power gravitation. All will only drop on it. It is named a gravitational kollaps. The such body is named отон (In Russia) (from an abbreviation ОТО - general theory of a relativity). Or simply - « A Black hole ».
     But there is some  processes in which something leaves a black hole. Here we already interfere in area of a quantum mechanics. Generally speaking, the quantum mechanics is a list of the formulas, which allow mathematically to describe some not so understandable physical phenomena in the field of physics of elementary partiсles. Nature of these phenomena is not so clear even  for scientist itself.
    Basically, the effects of a quantum mechanics happen that the elementary partiсles are as though simultaneously both partiсles, and waves. And, than less a partiсles, the more it exhibits wave properties.  The very small partiсles are not so similar to small balls. They with the certain probability can as if to be in different places. And, any barriers  do not stop them. But more often they are in some one place. This effect called « Tunnel effect », is used in engineering. For example in stabilitrons. It is a special crystal diode used frequently in stabilizers of voltage, is in a power supply unit of any computer or TV set. So, sizes of a black hole rather small, and mass there huge. Therefore very small elementary partiсles by virtue of the quantum nature can appear outside of a black hole and more  do not return. It is named evaporation of a black hole. As the black hole has a gravitational field, and also magnetic and electrical fields and fast rotates, the evaporating partiсles will not form of the spherical symmetrical shell round a black hole, and form as though jets in two opposite directions.
      If the black hole small, it evaporates  very fast. If very large, and inflow new incident on a black hole of a mass (it is named - accretion) compensates evaporation, the black hole can exist very longly. For want of it, the mass of substance appearing round a black hole for the account of evaporation, in turn compensates a mass, incident on a black hole.  The huge black holes also are a basis of galaxies. 
      Galaxies. As we mentioned, galaxy, are be of three kinds: elliptic, spiral and incorrect form shown on a photo 3, 4 and 5. There are also galaxies the rather strangely forms shown on a Photo 6. 
                      There are different judgements about origin and development of galaxies. I shall state about one from them, with which many scientists agree and which  is pleasant personally for me.  

Photo 3                      Photo 4                      Photo 5

Photo 6

So, in the beginning of Large explosion all substance was as a radiation, that is is quantum of very high frequency and energy. In accordance with the extension they become to organize elementary partiсles, from which become to be organized atoms of hydrogen. The denseness of gas was very high, but at the expense of gravitational instability the gas began to be divided into separate condensations.  Were arising supermassive stars, which fast evolutioned  (about evolution of stars we shall tell on the following page) and were such compressed, that have turned in black holes.
    The black hole began to evaporate. Around it began to be organized a cloud of elementary partiсles, which being integrated, and from it arise atoms of hydrogen. Gravitational condensations of  gas results in origin of stars, which together with a black hole will origin a galaxy.
     Despite of a huge mass, sizes of a black hole small and the stars enclosing a black hole do it invisible. Therefore it is impossible to see a black hole. During the initial extension of the universe  in it the very rough processes happened. In this connection, the compressed gas   generating black holes, is rotating. In accordance with their compression they rotated  faster. This effect, probably, all saw when the ice skater, pressing hands, rotates faster. In the final account, the black hole, as a rule, rotates very fast, and behaves as  the known top. Who in childhood played with a top, that, probably, remembers, that if to try to incline it, strangely enough top does not obey and is inclined not in that party, where you it try to incline, and under an angle in a ninety of degrees. This effect is named as a precession.
     So, the black hole on cause of mechanical interaction with substance, generated by it, slowly turns. Therefore and the jets expiring from it  also slowly turn. Therefore also will  appear spiral structure of galaxies .
      Generally speaking,  the sizes of a black hole, velocity of its rotation, the characteristics of electrical and magnetic fields can  differ, that generates large variety  of galaxies. Depend galaxies appearances  and from a distance too, as  we see  further, we see more early processes in the universe. In particular, kvasars, quite probably, it is processes of origin of black holes. Such galaxies are shown on a Photo 6.
      Galaxies we see because they radiate light, that is energy. Therefore, losing  more energy and substance, the galaxies grow old. With time, the balance  of the accretion and the evaporating  on a black hole have infringing. The black hole loses a mass, in due course evaporates completely, and then we see a galaxy of the incorrect form. The galaxy dies.
                      Now we shall proceed to stars.

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